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Monopoly (board Game)

Monopoly (board game)

Monopoly is one of the best-selling commercial board games in the world. Players compete to acquire wealth through stylized economic activity involving the purchase, rental and trading of real estate using play money, as players take turns moving around the board according to the roll of the dice. The game is named after the economic concept of monopoly, the domination of a market by a single seller. According to Hasbro, since Charles Darrow patented the game in 1935, approximately 500 million people have played the game, making it "the most played board game in the world" (though this fact is [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Monopoly_%28game%29#Most_played.3F heavily disputed]). [http://www.hasbro.com/monopoly/pl/page.funfacts/dn/default.cfm] The 1999 Guinness Book of Records cited this same figure [http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/index.asp?id=52882].

History

Guinness Book of Records.]] Variations on the game of Monopoly were developed and played during the early part of the twentieth century. These included various homemade games adapted to the places where players lived. A frequently cited example: in 1904, Georgist (that is, a supporter of political economist Henry George) Lizzie Magie patented a game called "The Landlord's Game" with the object of demonstrating how rents enrich property owners and impoverish tenants. She knew that some people could find it hard to understand why this happened and what might be done about it, and she thought that if Georgist ideas were put into the concrete form of a game, they might be easier to demonstrate. In 1936, Parker Brothers bought the rights to The Landlord's Game from Magie for $500[http://www.adena.com/adena/mo/mo13.htm] with the understanding that they would promote the game alongside Monopoly. Although The Landlord's Game was patented, it was not taken up by a manufacturer until 1910, when it was published in the U.S. by the Economic Game Company of New York. In the UK it was published in 1913 by the Newbie Game Company of London under the title Brer Fox an' Brer Rabbit. Despite the title change, it was recognizably the same game. Apart from commercial distribution, it spread by word of mouth and was played in slightly variant homemade versions over the years by Quakers, Georgists, university students and others who became aware of it. As it spread, its rules were changed, most notably in dropping the second phase of the game during which a Land tax was introduced to replace the other taxes, and the shortened game became known as "Auction Monopoly". It was often localized, with the original fanciful property names being replaced by street names from the cities where the players lived. By the late 1920s it was known simply as "Monopoly" and was played very much as it is now. One version of the game, commonly played in the Philadelphia area, had Atlantic City street names; this game was taught to Charles Darrow, who then began to distribute the game himself. Darrow initially made the sets of the Monopoly game by hand with the help of his first son, William Darrow, and his wife. Charles drew the designs with a drafting pen on round pieces of oilcloth, and then his son and his wife helped fill in the spaces with colors and make the title deed cards and the chance and community chest cards. After the demand for the game increased, Darrow contacted a printing company, which printed the designs of the property spaces on square carton boards. Darrow took the game to Parker Brothers, who then sold it as his personal invention. Parker Brothers subsequently decided to buy out Magie's copyright, and the copyrights of other commercial variants of the game, in order to claim that it had legitimate, undisputed rights to the game. Monopoly was first marketed on a broad scale by Parker Brothers on November 5, 1935 with international licensing rights given to Waddington Games of the United Kingdom (both of which are now part of Hasbro). Waddington's version (with locations from London) was first produced in 1936. On the original Parker Brothers board (reprinted in 2002 by Winning Moves Games), there were no icons for the Community Chest spaces (the blue chest overflowing with gold coins came later). Nor were there property values printed on spaces on the board. The Income Tax was slightly higher (being $300 or 10%, instead of the later $200 or 10%). The Chance and Community Chest cards were reprinted in their original 1935 form, without "Rich Uncle Pennybags", who was introduced in 1936. Parker Brothers then promoted Darrow as the game's sole inventor. Decades later, when they attempted to suppress publication of a game called Anti-Monopoly, designed by Ralph Ansbach, the trademark suit went all the way to the Supreme Court of the United States in 1983, affirming a decision of the United States Court of Appeals (9th District). The court found in favor of Ansbach, bringing to light facts about the game's history which differed from Parker Brothers' "official" account. 1983 The original Monopoly game had been localized for the cities or areas in which it was played and Parker Brothers has continued this practice. Their version of Monopoly has been produced for international markets, with the place names being localized for cities including London and Paris, and for countries including the Netherlands and Germany, among others. In recent years, different manufacturers of the game have created dozens of versions in which the names of the properties and other elements of the game are replaced by others with some theme. There are versions about national parks, Star Trek, Star Wars, Disney, various particular cities (such as Las Vegas or Bath) and villages (such as "Calumetopoly" for Calumet, Michigan), states, NASCAR, and many others. In July of 2000, in a major marketing effort, Hasbro renamed the mascot Rich Uncle Pennybags to "Mr. Monopoly", felt by some to be a more bland name. Computer and video game versions have been made available on many different platforms; they have been produced for PC, Amiga, Mac, Commodore 64, NES, SNES, Game Boy, Game Boy Color, Game Boy Advance, Sega Master System, Sega Genesis, Nintendo 64, PlayStation, PlayStation 2, GameCube, Xbox, and mobile phones.

Legal status

Although the game of Monopoly existed prior to the Parker Brothers edition, the company (now owned by Hasbro) has still claimed intellectual property rights over various aspects of the game, though it has not always prevailed in the courts. The 1983 Anti-Monopoly case mentioned above, in addition to revealing some of the previously suppressed history of the game, also created a doctrine that names of games were generally not trademarkable because they referred to a particular set of game elements, rules, and equipment (covered by patent and copyright law rather than trademarks) rather than to a source of origin of goods and services. As a result, the name "Monopoly" entered the public domain where the naming of games was concerned, and a profusion of non-Parker-Brothers variants were published. However, this doctrine was later eliminated by Congress in a revision of the trademark law, and Parker Brothers now claims trademark rights to the name and its variants, and has asserted it against others such as the publishers of "Ghettopoly". Various patents have existed on the game of Monopoly and its predecessors such as The Landlord's Game, but they are all now expired. The specific graphics of the game board, cards, and pieces are protected by copyright law, as is the specific wording of the game's rules; however, one can most likely avoid violation by producing a board and rules that are functionally identical while using different words and graphics.

Board

Atlantic City version

This is the original version produced by Parker Brothers. The board consists of 40 squares, containing 28 properties, 3 "Chance" squares, 3 "Community Chest" squares, a "Luxury Tax" square, an "Income Tax" square, "GO", "Jail", "Free Parking", and "Go to Jail". In the U.S. version shown below, the properties are named after locations in (or near) Atlantic City, NJ.
Landing on the Jail space by a direct roll of the dice (without being sent to Jail) in the corner between the Light Blue and Maroon properties means you are "Just Visiting" and continue the next turn normally. Note that Marvin Gardens, a Yellow property on the above board, is actually a misspelling of the original location name, Marven Gardens. Marven Gardens is not a street, but a housing area outside Atlantic City. The housing area is said to be derived from MARgate City and VENtnor City, in New Jersey. The misspelling was originally introduced by Charles Todd, whose home-made Monopoly board was copied by Charles Darrow and subsequently used as the basis of their design by Parker Brothers. It was not until 1995 that Parker Brothers acknowledged this mistake, and formally apologized to the residents of Marven Gardens for the misspelling [http://www.hasbro.com/monopoly/history/history_timeline.htm]. Short Line is believed to refer to the Shore Fast Line, a streetcar line that served Atlantic City [http://www.courierpostonline.com/ac150/m070504b.htm]. The B&O Railroad did not serve Atlantic City. A booklet included with the reprinted 1935 edition states that the four railroads that served Atlantic City in the mid 1930s were the Jersey Central, the Seashore Lines, the Reading Railroad and the Pennsylvania Railroad. Finally, Atlantic City does not have a Water Works—its water is piped in from the New Jersey "mainland" through two pipes. The other versions of the game have different property names, and the prices may be denominated in another currency, but the game mechanics are almost identical. (The income tax choice from the U.S. version is replaced by a flat rate in the UK version, and the $75 Luxury Tax square is replaced with the £100 Super Tax square.)

London version

In the 1930s, John Waddington Ltd. (Waddingtons) was a firm of printers from Leeds that had begun to branch out into packaging and the production of playing cards. Waddingtons had sent the card game Lexicon to Parker Brothers hoping to interest them in publishing the game in the United States. In a similar fashion Parker Brothers sent over a copy of Monopoly to Waddingtons early in 1935 before the game had been put into production in the United States. The managing director of Waddingtons, Victor Watson, gave the game to his son Norman (who was head of the card games division) to test over the weekend. Norman was impressed by the game and persuaded his father to call Parker Brothers on Monday morning. This call resulted in Waddingtons obtaining a license to produce and market the game outside of the United States. Watson felt that in order for the game to be a success in Britain the American locations would have to be replaced, so Victor and his secretary, Marjory Phillips, went to London to scout out locations. The Angel Islington is not a street in London but an area of North London named after a coaching inn that stood on the Great North Road. By the 1930s the inn had become a Lyons Corner House (it is now a Co-operative Bank). Some accounts say that Marjory and Victor met at the Angel to discuss the selection and celebrated the fact by including it on the Monopoly board. In 2003, a plaque commemorating the naming, was unveiled at the site by Victor Watson's grandson who is also named Victor. The standard British board, produced by Waddingtons, was for many years the version most familiar to people in countries in the Commonwealth (except Canada) and many other nations and is shown below. In the cases where the game was produced under license by a national company, the £ (pound) was replaced by a $ (dollar) sign, but the place names were unchanged. In 2005, Hasbro launched the "Here & Now Limited Edition", updating the properties and prices to reflect present-day London properties. The playing pieces were also changed to be: Mobile phone, Roller blade, Hamburger, Jumbo Jet, Racing Car, Skateboard and London Bus. This version was launched in recognition of the game's 70th anniversary in conjunction with an online version. For a list of some of the localized versions, including the "Here & Now" edition, and the names of their properties, see localized versions of the Monopoly game.

Properties in detail

This list details the 22 real estate properties in the original United States version of Monopoly as presented by Darrow to Parker Brothers. The Original Atlantic City Monopoly board was done by Hoskin/Raiford's Atlantic City Quaker Friends School teachers with the changes noted by starred [
- ] items. The bracketed items are the differences in the names on the Hoskin/Raiford Quaker Monopoly board. It is believed that a version copied from this school's edition by Charles Todd was in turn copied by Charles Darrow, duplicating the changes in names, and the infamous misspelling of Marven Gardens. The four railroads (Reading Railroad, Pennsylvania Railroad, B&O Railroad, and Short Line) are each worth $200. Rent is based on the number of railroads that player owns: $25 for one, $50 for two, $100 for three, and $200 for all four. Each railroad has a mortgage value of $100. The two utilities (Electric Company and Water Works) are each worth $150. If a player owns either, rent is equal to the amount shown on the dice times 4. If a player owns both, rent is equal to the amount shown on the dice times 10. Each utility has a mortgage value of $75.

Equipment

localized versions of the Monopoly game Each player is represented by a small pewter token which is moved around the edge of the board according to the roll of two dice. The twelve playing pieces currently used are pictured to the right and are as follows (from left to right): a wheelbarrow, a battleship, a sack of money (1999 editions onwards), a horse and rider, a car, a train (Deluxe Edition only), a thimble, a cannon, an old boot, a Scottie dog, an iron, and a top hat. Originally, the battleship and cannon were from a Parker Brothers war-based game that failed on the market; the premade pieces were recycled into Monopoly usage. Hasbro recently adopted the battleship and cannon for Diplomacy. In 1999, a token representing a sack of money was added following an online vote. The other two options were a biplane and a piggy bank. Unlike the tokens introduced in special themed editions, this token was added to the base set. More recently, a train has also been added to the possible lineup (pictured). Early localized editions of the standard edition did not include pewter tokens but instead had generic plastic head-shaped tokens (not unlike the MSN Messenger logo). These plastic tokens can be seen in the German Monopoly set pictured at the beginning of this article. Also included in the standard edition are: MSN Messenger]]
- A pair of six-sided dice.
- A Title Deed for each property. A Title Deed is given to a player to signify ownership, and specifies purchase price, mortgage value, the cost of building houses and hotels on that property, and the various rent prices depending on how developed the property is. Properties include:
- 22 streets, divided into 8 color groups of two or three streets. A player must own all of a color group (have a monopoly) in order to build houses or hotels.
- 4 railways. Players collect higher rent if they own more than one railway. Hotels and houses cannot be built on railways.
- 2 utilities. Players collect higher rent if they own both utilities. Hotels and houses cannot be built on utilities.
- A supply of paper 'money'. The supply of money is theoretically unlimited; if the bank runs out of money the players must make do with other markers, or calculate on paper.
- Thirty-two wooden or plastic houses and twelve wooden or plastic hotels. (the original and the current 'Deluxe Edition' have wooden houses and hotels, the current 'base set' uses plastic buildings) Unlike money, houses and hotels have a finite supply. If no more are available, no substitute is allowed.
- A deck of 16 "Chance" cards and a deck of 16 "Community Chest" cards. Players draw these cards when they land on the corresponding squares of the track, and follow the instructions printed on them. Hasbro also sells a Deluxe Edition, which is mostly identical to the classic edition but has wooden houses and hotels and gold-toned tokens, including one token in addition to the standard eleven: a railroad locomotive. Other additions to the Deluxe Edition include a card carousel, which holds the title deed cards, and money printed with two colors of ink. The F.A.O. Schwarz in New York City sells a custom version called "One-of-a-kind Monopoly" for USD$100,000.[http://www.lmtonline.com/news/archive/100200/pagea4.pdf][http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2000_Sept_19/ai_65295755/pg_3] This special edition comes in a locking attaché case made with Napolino leather and lined in suede, and upgrades include:
- 18-carat (75%) gold tokens, houses and hotels
- Rosewood board
- street names written in gold leaf
- emeralds around the Chance icon
- sapphires around the Community Chest
- rubies in the brake lights of the car on the Free Parking Space
- the money is real, negotiable United States currency

Rules

Two to eight people may play Monopoly, but the game dynamics are ideal with six players. With more than six players, it is too likely that an individual will not have the opportunity to purchase significant property, and be bankrupted without ever having been in contention. With four or fewer players, there are not as many possible combinations of property ownership, and the importance of astute trading and negotiation is diminished. Each player begins the game with his token on the Go square, and $1500 ( £1500, €1500, etc.) in cash divided as follows, per the U.S. standard rules. Note that other editions, such as Germany's, use different starting breakdowns of currency. (This list uses U.S. currency) :
- 2 each of:
- $500 bills
- $100 bills and
- $50 bills
- 6 $20 bills
- 5 each of:
- $10 bills
- $5 bills
- $1 bills All property deeds, houses, and hotels are held by the bank until purchased by the players.

Official rules

Players take turns in order, as determined by chance prior to the game. A player's turn consists of rolling two dice and advancing on the board the corresponding number of squares clockwise around the track. Depending on where he lands, he takes any of a number of actions.

House rules

Many casual Monopoly players are surprised and disappointed to discover that some of the rules they are used to are not part of the official rules. Many of these house rules tend to make the game longer by giving some players more money. Some of the more common house rules include:
- Free Parking jackpot, which usually consists of an initial stake plus collection of fines and taxes that would otherwise be paid to the bank. A player who lands on Free Parking wins the jackpot, which may then be reset with the initial stake (if any). The jackpot is usually put in the center of the board.
- Players in jail not allowed to build and/or collect rent.
- A bonus amount for landing directly on "GO" (commonly an additional $200).
- Unlimited houses and hotels.
- No "build evenly" restriction on improving properties.
- Not having auctions when a player passes on their chance to buy the property they land on, or neglects to stake their claim.
- Delayed Start, Players must pass "GO" before they can buy property.
- Double Rent, even with mortgage/with no mortgage. Even with mortgage allows yourself to collect double rent even if one or more properties' colour group are mortgaged.

Strategy

Monopoly involves a substantial portion of luck, with the roll of the dice determining whether a player gets to own key properties or lands on squares with high rents. Even the initial misfortune of going last is a significant disadvantage, because one is more likely to land on property which has already been purchased, and therefore be forced to pay rent instead of having an opportunity to buy unowned property. There are, however, many strategic decisions which allow skilled players to win more often than the unskilled. One common criticism of Monopoly is that it has carefully defined yet almost unreachable termination conditions. Many players' childhood memories of Monopoly involve giving up playing the game after a seemingly endless series of hours playing. This problem can be resolved by playing with a time limit and counting up each player's worth when the time is up.

Add-ons

Numerous official and unofficial add-ons have been made for Monopoly, both before its commercialization and after. The best-known expansion to the game is the Stock Exchange Add-On, published by Parker Brothers in 1936. Originally released in 1936, it was later redesigned and rereleased in 1992 under license by Chessex, this time including a large number of new Chance and Community Chest cards ([http://www.boardgamegeek.com/game/9466 more info]). In the Stock Exchange add-on, the Free Parking square is replaced with the Stock Exchange. The add-on also contained three each of Chance and Community Chest cards directing the player to advance to the Stock Exchange. The 1992 add-on also included seven other Chance cards and eight Community Chest cards (to play with the 1992 add-on, one Community Chest card - "From sale of stock you get $45" - is removed). The add-on also included thirty stock certificates, five for each of the six different stocks, differing only in its purchase price, ranging from $100 to $150. Shares, like properties, can be considered to be tradeable material, and could also be mortgaged for half their purchase price. Shareholders could increase the value of their shares by buying up more of the same company's shares. When a player moves onto Free Parking, stock dividends are paid out to all players with any unmortgaged shares. The amount to be paid out to each player is determined based on the number and kind of shares owned. Specifically, a player receives dividends from each stock based on the following mathematical formula: : (purchase price of share / 10) × (number of shares owned)² The player who lands on Free Parking can also choose to buy a share if any remain—should the player decline, the Bank auctions a share off to the highest bidder. The 1936 rules are ambiguous with regards to the stock that is put up for auction, and convention has it that the winner of the auction chooses the stock to be received. The Stock Exchange add-on serves to inject more money into the game, in a similar manner to railroad properties, as well as changing the relative values of properties. In particular, the Yellow and Green properties are more valuable due to the increased chance of landing on Free Parking, at the expense of the Light Purple and Orange groups. The game was again reengineered in 2001, this time adding an electronic calculator-like device to keep track of the complex stock figures ([http://www.boardgamegeek.com/game/3065 more info]). "Playmaster", another add-on, kept track of all player movement and dice rolls as well as what properties are still available. It then uses this information to call random auctions and mortgages that will be advantageous for some players and a punishment for others, making it easier to free up cards of a color group. It also plays eight short tunes when key game functions occur, for example when a player lands on a railroad it will play I've Been Working on the Railroad. See the [http://www.boardgamegeek.com/game/5638 BoardGameGeek database] for more. There have also been several unofficial Monopoly addons, some of which are able to be played on their own as well as in addition to Monopoly.

Spinoffs

Monopoly Tycoon is a PC game in the Tycoon series that takes the luck factor out of Monopoly and makes it a strategy and speed game. Being a computer game, it is the only true "improvement" that this game has had. Moreover it allows online multiplayer possible. Parker Brothers has also sold several games which are spinoffs of Monopoly. These are not add-ons as they don't function as an addition to the Monopoly game, but are simply additional games in the flavor of Monopoly.
- Monopoly Junior board game, a simplified version for young children
- Advance to Boardwalk board game
- Monopoly: The Card Game
- Water Works card game
- Free Parking card game
- Don't Go To Jail The MONOPOLY Dice Game A short-lived television game show, Monopoly, ran for twelve weeks in 1990 before being cancelled. In North America, a variety of slot machines have been produced with a Monopoly theme.

Variants

Because Monopoly evolved in the public domain before its commercialization, Monopoly has seen many variant games. Most of these are exact copies of the Monopoly games with the street names replaced with locales from a particular town, university, or fictional place. Parker Brothers themselves have done some adaptations of this sort, alongside those released by others.

Themed Monopoly games

Over the years, several speciality Monopoly editions have been released, including:
- Arsenal F.C. Monopoly (UK)
- Manchester United F.C. Monopoly (UK)
- Bath Monopoly (UK)
- Australian Football League Monopoly (Australia)
- Disney Monopoly (At least two different versions)
- 50th Anniversary Chevy Corvette Monopoly
- Chicago White Sox World Series 1917-2005 Monopoly
- Europa Monopoly, sold in Germany, using Euros for currency and different European nations as the colored properties.
- Garfield Monopoly
- Hard Rock Cafe Monopoly (with international locations this essentially serves as a global monopoly game).
- Harley Davidson Monopoly
- Looney Tunes Monopoly
- Lord of the Rings Monopoly
- Marshall Field's Monopoly, sold exclusively by the department store chain.
- New York Monopoly
- NASCAR Monopoly
- National Parks Monopoly
- NHL Monopoly
- Peanuts Monopoly
- Pokémon Monopoly
- Powerpuff Girls Monopoly
- Spider-Man Monopoly
- Red Sox Monopoly
- The Simpsons Monopoly
- Seattle Monopoly
- Star Trek Monopoly (one version for each of the first four series)
- Star Wars Monopoly (with versions for the "Original Trilogy" and the "Prequel" movies)
- Here and Now Limited Edition Monopoly (UK 70th anniversary edition updating the properties)
- Vaughan Monopoly, released by the mayor of the City of Vaughan, Ontario, Canada, as a PR item and dozens more

National Monopoly games

Several Monopoly games featuring locations for several countries have been officially released, sometimes as limited editions, including:
- Monopoly Australia
- Monopoly Canada
- Monopoly Finland
- Monopoly France
- Monopoly Ireland
- Monopoly Germany
- Monopoly Latvia
- Monopoly New Zealand
- Monopoly United Kingdom
- Monopoly USA

Local Monopoly games

Several Monopoly games are based on cities, towns, or regions within countries, again sometimes as special editions:
- Monopoly Bath
- Monopoly Birmingham
- Monopoly Brighton
- Monopoly Bristol
- Monopoly Cambridge
- Monopoly Cornwall
- Monopoly Coventry
- Monopoly Derbyshire
- Monopoly Devon
- Monopoly Edinburgh
- Monopoly Essex
- Monopoly Glasgow
- Monopoly Gloucestershire
- Monopoly Hull
- Monopoly Jersey
- Monopoly Kent
- Monopoly Leicestershire
- Monopoly Liverpool
- Monopoly Manchester
- Monopoly Northern Ireland
- Monopoly Norwich
- Monopoly Nottingham
- Monopoly Oxford
- Monopoly Reading
- Monopoly Southampton
- Monopoly Sunderland
- Monopoly Swansea
- Monopoly Wigan

City in a box

(City) in a box is a series of Monopoly-inspired games that are themed off of major cities through America. This theme was introduced in the 90's. Cities include:
- Atlanta
- Detroit
- St. Louis
- Philadelphia
- Chicago

Late for the Sky

[http://www.lateforthesky.com Late for the Sky] produce a huge range of Monopoly based games with the same rules and board layout as Monopoly but with a large selection of special themes. Some of these presumably make Monopoly more interesting for children and other specific market segments. They also offer Monopoly based games based on your own theme.

Related games

Some games have been published which take after Monopoly, but have variations in rules which affect game play. Some of these include:
- Anti-Monopoly, written by Ralph Anspach in 1974.
- Atlantik is a Monopoly-based computer game for KDE on Linux, again, with the street names changed. It maintains the same set of rules for Monopoly while adding multiplayer support across a LAN or the internet.
- Dogopoly [http://www.Dogopoly.com], created by Spahits Games in 1977 with a 25th anniversary edition released in 2002.
- Fast Food Franchise is a board game by TimJim games which shares Monopoly's core mechanic, but through careful design guarantees that it will actually end.
- Galactic Magnate [http://www.galacticmag.com], a version modified to minimize the impact of luck and having reachable termination conditions.
- Ghettopoly, released in 2003, caused considerable offense upon its release. The game, intended to be a humorous rendering of ghetto life, was decried as racist for its unflinching use of racial stereotypes.
- The Mad Magazine Game, a Mad Magazine themed board game in which the object of the game is to lose all your money, play is counter-clockwise, and the dice must be rolled with the left hand. Released by Parker Brothers in 1979.
- Solarquest, a popular space-age adaptation, was released by Golden in 1986.

Popular culture

- A common dismissive comment about a currency is to call it "Monopoly money", for instance as Americans sometimes refer to the more colourful Canadian dollar, or the British the "lower value" euro.
- McDonald's Monopoly is a sweepstakes run by the fast-food chain, with a theme based on the board game where you receive a prize if you collect all the properties of one color section. The playing pieces are often found on medium to large drinks and french fries, as well as other selected menu items. For example, in the Fall 2005 incarnation, game pieces could be found on their "Premium Chicken" items.
- CNBC TV anchor James Cramer, a Monopoly fan who was a co-host with Lawrence Kudlow on Kudlow & Cramer, has referred to railroad stocks as "the Readings and the Short Lines" on his TV program Mad Money. Like Monopoly patentor Charles Darrow, Cramer is from southeastern Pennsylvania, specifically Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania.
- The arch rival of The Simpsons' character C. Montgomery Burns is Uncle Pennybags, who has been featured in a few episodes. Also, in another episode titled "Brawl in the Family" [http://www.snpp.com/episodes/DABF01], the Simpsons try to decide what game to play, going through a list of Monopoly clones including: Edna Krabopoly, Gallipolopoly, and Star Wars Monopoly. Later a family fight breaks out when they discover Bart using red Lego pieces as hotels; one of the police officers later said: "Another Monopoly-related violence, chief. How do those Parker Brothers sleep at night?"
- The Monopoly Pub Crawl is a popular pub crawl of London (or any city having a Monopoly Board).
- "Do not pass go; do not collect 200 (dollars, pounds, etc.)" has entered popular culture as a phrase used with various meanings.

External links

- [http://www.monopoly.com The official U.S. Monopoly web site]
- [http://www.monopoly.co.uk The official UK Monopoly web site] McDonalds Monopoly
- [http://mickydees.blogspot.com Mcdonald's monopoly blog]
- [http://www.playatmcd.ca Official Canadian McDonalds site]
- [http://www.playatmcd.com Official US McDonalds site] History
- [http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=2,026,082.WKU.&OS=PN/2,026,082&RS=PN/2,026,082 Patent filed by C.B. Darrow for "monopoly" -- Dec. 31. 1935]
- [http://tt.tf/gamehist/mon-index.html Early history of Monopoly]
- [http://www.courierpostonline.com/ac150/ Atlantic City 150th Anniversary] series of articles from the newspaper CourierPost, which describe the streets of Atlantic City that appear on Monopoly
- [http://www.twoop.com/games/archives/2005/10/monopoly.html History of Monopoly] - A Timeline Other versions
- [http://www.worldofmonopoly.co.uk World of Monopoly] Worldwide versions
- [http://www.antimonopoly.com/ The Anti-Monopoly web site]
- [http://www.galacticmag.com/ The Galactic Magnate web site] Online Monopoly with revised rules
- [http://www.Dogopoly.com/ The Dogopoly web site]
- [http://www.usaopoly.com/ USAopoly web site], makers of official licensed editions of Monopoly and other games Game theory
- [http://www.bewersdorff-online.de/amonopoly/ Monopoly and Mathematics]
- [http://www.tkcs-collins.com/truman/monopoly/monopoly.shtml Probabilities in the Game of Monopoly] by Truman Collins
- [http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1451 The Economics of Monopoly] Miscellaneous
- [http://www.freedigitalphotos.net/thumbnails.php?album=260 Monopoly board images]
- BoardGameGeek reviews and pictures of [http://www.boardgamegeek.com/game/13154 the game] Monopoly Monopoly Monopoly category:Atlantic City, New Jersey Category:Guinness World Record holder ja:モノポリー simple:Monopoly

Board game

A board game is any game played with a premarked surface, with counters or pieces that are moved across the board. Simple board games are often seen as ideal "family entertainment" as they can provide entertainment for all ages. Some board games, such as chess or Go, have intense strategic value and have become lasting classics. There are many different types and classifications of board games. Some games are simplified simulations of real life. These are popular for they can intermingle make-believe and role playing along with the game. Popular games of this type include Monopoly, which is a rough simulation of the real estate market, Clue (in Canada and the U.S.) or Cluedo (internationally), which is based upon a murder mystery, and Risk which is one of the most well known of thousands of games attempting to simulate warfare and geo-politics. Other games only loosely, or do not at all, attempt to imitate reality. These include abstract strategy games like chess and checkers, word games, such as Scrabble, and trivia games, such as Trivial Pursuit. right

History

Board games have a long history and have been played in most cultures and societies; some even pre-date literacy skill development in the earliest civilizations. A number of important historical sites, artifacts and documents exist which shed light on early board games. The most of important of these include:
- Senet has been found in Predynastic and First Dynasty burials of Egypt, c. 3500 BC and 3100 BC respectively [http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Piccione/index.html]. Senet is the oldest board game known to have existed. Also see [http://www.hrejsi.cz/clanky/dama1.html Okno do svita deskovych her] for a photo of the actual fresco found in Merknera's tomb (3300-2700 BC).
- Mehen is another ancient board game from Predynastic Egypt.
- The Royal Tombs of Ur contained, among others, the Royal Game of Ur. They were excavated by C. Leonard Woolley, but his books document little on the games found. Most of the games he excavated are now housed in the British Museum in London.
- Buddha games list is the earliest known list of games.

Timeline

- 3500 BC - Senet found in Predynastic Egyptian burials [http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Piccione/index.html]; also depicted in the tomb of Merknera.
- 3000 BC - Mehen, board game from Predynastic Egypt, played with lion-shaped game pieces and marbles.
- 2560 BC - Board of the Royal Game of Ur (found at Ur Tombs)
- 2500 BC - Paintings of Senet and Han being played made in the tomb of Rashepes
- 2000 BC - Drawing in a tomb at Benihassan depicting two unknown board games being played (depicted in Falkner). It has been suggested that the second of these is Tau.
- 1500 BC - Liubo carved on slab of blue stone. Also painting of [http://www.gamesmuseum.uwaterloo.ca/Archives/Brumbaugh/index.html Board Game] of Knossos.
- 1400 BC - Game boards including Alquerque, Three Men's Morris, Nine Men's Morris, and a possible Mancala board etched on the roof of the Kurna Temple. (Source: Fiske, and Bell)
- 200 BC - A Go board pre-dating 200 BC was found in 1954 in Wangdu County. This board is now in Beijing Historical Museum. (Source: John Fairbairn's [http://gobase.org/history/china.html Go in Ancient China]).
- 116 - 27 BC - Marcus Terentius Varro's [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/varro.ll10.html Lingua Latina X] (II, par. 20) contains earliest known reference to latrunculi (often confused with Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum, Ovid's game mentioned below).
- 79 - 8 BC - Liu Xiang's (劉向) Shuo yuan, contains earliest known reference to Xiangqi.
- 1 BC-8 AD Ovid's Ars Amatoria contains earliest known reference to Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum and the smaller merels.
- 220-265 Nard enters China under the name t'shu-p'u (Source: Hun Tsun Sii) Board games first became widely popular among the general population early in the 20th century when the rise of the middle class with disposable income and leisure time made them a receptive audience to such games. This popularity expanded after the Second World War, a period from which many classic board games date. Computer games are closely related to board games, and many acclaimed computer games such as Civilization are based upon board games. Many board games are now available as computer games, including the option to have the computer act as an opponent. The rise of computers has also led to a relative decline in the most complicated board games, as they require less space, and are easier to set up and clear away. With the Internet, many board games can now be played online against computer or other players in real time (like to classics board games available on Yahoo, Lycos and other big Internet sites) or during your spare time, every time it's your turn (see the links at the end of this article). The modern board game industry is rife with corporate mergers and acquisitions, with large companies such as Hasbro owning many subsidiaries and selling products under a variety of brand names. It is difficult to successfully market a new board game to the mass market. Retailers tend to be conservative about stocking games of untested popularity, and most large board game companies have established criteria that a game must meet in order to be produced. If, for instance, Monopoly were introduced as a new game today, it would not meet the criteria for production.

Luck, strategy and diplomacy

One way of defining board games are between those based upon luck and strategy. Some games, such as chess, have no luck involved. Children's games tend to be very luck based with games such as Sorry! having virtually no decisions to be made. Most board games have both luck and strategy. A player may be hampered by a few poor rolls of the dice in Risk or Monopoly, but over many games a player with a superior strategy will win more often. While some purists consider luck to not be a desirable component of a game, others counter that elements of luck can make for far more complex and multi-faceted strategies as concepts such as expected value and risk management must be considered. Still most adult game players prefer to make some decisions during play, and find purely luck based games such as Top Trumps quite boring. The third important factor in a game is diplomacy, or players making deals with each other. A game of solitaire, for obvious reasons, has no player interaction. Two player games usually don't have diplomacy, as cooporation between the two players does not occur. Thus, this generally applies only to games played with three or more people. An important facet of Settlers of Catan, for example, is convincing people to trade with you rather than with other players. In Risk, one example of diplomacy's effectiveness is when two or more players team up against another. Easy diplomacy consists of convincing other players that someone else is winning and should therefore be teamed up against. Difficult diplomacy (such as in the aptly named game Diplomacy) consists of making elaborate plans together, with possibility of betrayal. Luck is introduced to a game by a number of methods. The most popular is using dice, generally six sided. These can determine everything from how many steps a player moves their token, as in Monopoly, how their forces fare in battle, such as in Risk, or which resources a player gains, such as in Settlers of Catan. Other games such as Sorry! use a deck of special cards that when shuffled create randomness. Scrabble does something similar with randomly picked letters. Other games use spinners, timers of random length, or other sources of randomness. Trivia games have a great deal of randomness based on which question a person gets. German-style board games are notable for often having rather less luck factor than in many North American board games.

Common terminology

German-style board game Although many board games have a jargon all their own, there is a generalized terminology to describe concepts applicable to basic game mechanics and attributes common to nearly all board games.
- Gameboard (or board) — the (usually quadrilateral) surface on which one plays a board game; the namesake of the board game, gameboards are a necessary and sufficient condition of the genre
- Game Piece (or token) — a player's representative on the game board. Each player may control one or more game pieces. In some games that involve commanding multiple game pieces, such as chess, certain pieces have unique designations and capabilities within the parameters of the game; in others, such as Go, all pieces controlled by a player have the same essential capabilities.
- Jump — to bypass one or more game pieces and/or spaces. Depending on the context, jumping may also involve capturing or conquering an opponent's game piece. (See also: Game mechanic: Capture)
- Space (or square) — a physical unit of progress on a gameboard delimited by a distinct border (See also: Game mechanic: Movement)

References

- Fiske, Willard. Chess in Iceland and in Icelandic Literature—with historical notes on other table-games). Florentine Typographical Society, 1905.
- Falkener, Edward. Games Ancient and Oriental, and How To Play Them. Longmans, Green and Co., 1892.
- Austin, Roland G. "Greek Board Games." Antiquity 14. September 1940: 257–271
- Murray, Harold James Ruthven. A History of Board-Games Other Than Chess. Gardners Books, 1969.
- Bell, Robert Charles. The Boardgame Book. London: Bookthrift Company, 1979.
- Bell, Robert Charles. Board and Table Games from Many Civilizations. Mineola, New York: Dover Publications, 1980. ISBN 0486238555
- Reprint: New York: Exeter Books, 1983.
- Sackson, Sid. A Gamut of Games. Arrow Books, 1983. ISBN 0091533406
- Reprint: Dover Publications, 1992. ISBN 0-486-27347-4
- Schmittberger, R. Wayne. New Rules for Classic Games. John Wiley & Sons, 1992. ISBN 0-471-53621-0
- Reprint: Random House Value Publishing, 1994. ISBN 0517129558
- Parlett, David. Oxford History of Board Games. Oxford University Press, 1999. ISBN 0192129988 Note that some these works may suffer from cultural bias—especially Murray's work which, despite being the standard reference, tends to assume Western cultural superiority.

External links

General

- [http://www.di.fc.ul.pt/~jpn/gv/ The World of Abstract Games] - list of abstract board games with detailed rules
- [http://www.boardgamegeek.com BoardGameGeek] - BoardGameGeek is a board gaming database, including user reviews and rankings, photos, rules, translations, faqs strategies, and session reports. It contains over 20,000 individual boardgame entries.
- [http://www.games-db.com/Traditional/ Games-db] - features a board game database
- [http://www.thelittlewoodshop.co.uk/board-games-history.php The Little Woodshop] - A brief history of board games, from past to present
- [http://scv.bu.edu/~aarondf/Top100/ Internet Top 100 Games List] - The Internet Top 100 Games List compiles overall rankings from player ratings of board games sent in by email.
- [news://rec.games.board rec.games.board] - Usenet newsgroup

Specialist information

- [http://www.tradgames.org.uk/ Traditional Games] - includes information on classical games.
- [http://ricardobugsy.tripod.com/boardgames/boardgames.htm 1970s Vintage Boardgames] - UK 1970s rare vintage board games.
- [http://www.carromshop.com Carrom] - Traditional Asian board game played by 2 or 4 players.

Game design

- [http://www.bgdf.com/ The Board Game Designers Forum] - a forum for amateur and published board game designers with chats, workshops, competitions, news, game reviews and, of course, forums on design, prototyping, publishing and many other subjects.

Magazines

- [http://www.thegamesjournal.com/ The Games Journal] - a boardgaming monthly; good source for in-depth articles about boardgaming.
- [http://www.boardgamesstudies.org/ International Journal for the Study of Board Games]

Gaming organizations

- [http://www.boardgamers.org/ Boardgame Players Association] - World Boardgaming Championships
- [http://www.gencon.com/ GenCon]
- [http://www.originsgames.com/ Origins Game Fair]
- [http://www.gama.org/ Game Manufacturer's Association (GAMA)] - Non-profit formed in 1977 to promote hobby gaming.

Online play

- [http://www.brettspielwelt.de/ World of Board Games] - BrettspielWelt. About 50 board games to play online for free. A big community of active board gamers gather around this site.
- [http://GamesByEmail.com/ GamesByEmail.com] - correspondence gaming site.
- [http://www.kurnik.org/ Kurnik Online Games] - hassle-free online gaming site with lots of board and card games.
- [http://www.youplay.it/ You Play It] - play online many famous board games. Free site without advertising.
- [http://citadellesjavagame.free.fr/phpBB2 Citadels] - Play Bruno Faidutti's game online, alone versus bots or against human players Category:Board games ko:보드 게임 ja:ボードゲーム simple:Board game

Money

Money is any marketable good or token used by a society as a store of value, a medium of exchange, and a unit of account. Since the needs arise naturally, societies organically create a money object when none exists. In other cases, a central authority creates a money object; this is more frequently the case in modern societies with paper money. The value of money emerges in no small part from its utility as a medium of exchange, however its utility as a medium of exchange depends on it having recognised market value. Hence these two aspects of money are interdependent. Commodity money was the first form of money to emerge. Under a commodity money system, the object used as money has inherent value. It is usually adopted to simplify transactions in a barter economy; thus it functions first as a medium of exchange. It quickly begins functioning as a store of value, since holders of perishable goods can easily convert them into durable money. In modern economies, commodity money has also been used as a unit of account. Gold-backed currency notes are a common form of commodity money. Fiat money is a relatively modern invention. A central authority (government) creates a new money object that has minimal inherent value. The widespread acceptance of the fiat money is most frequently enhanced by the central authority mandating the money's acceptance under penalty of law and demands this money in payment of taxes or tribute. At various times in history government issued promisory notes have later become fiat currencies (US dollar) and fiat currencies have gone on to become a form of commodity currency (Swiss Dinar).

Essential characteristics of money

Money has all of the following three characteristics: 1. It must be a medium of exchange When an object is in demand primarily for its use in exchange -- for its ability to be used in trade to exchange for other things -- then it has this property. This characteristic allows money to be a standard of deferred payment, i.e., a tool for the payment of debt. 2. It must be a unit of account When the value of a good is frequently used to measure or compare the value of other goods or where its value is used to denominate debts then it is functioning as a unit of account. A debt or an IOU can not serve as a unit of account because its value is specified by comparison to some external reference value, some actual unit of account that may be used for settlement. For example, if in some culture people are inclined to measure the worth of things with reference to goats then we would regard goats as the dominant unit of account in that culture. For instance we may say that today a horse is worth 10 goats and a good hut is worth 45 goats. We would also say that an IOU denominated in goats would change value at much the same rate as real goats. 3. It must be a store of value When an object is purchased primarily to store value for future trade then it is being used as a store of value. For example, a sawmill might maintain an inventory of lumber that has market value. Likewise it might keep a cash box that has some currency that holds market value. Both would represent a store of value because through trade they can be reliably converted to other goods at some future date. Most non-perishable goods have this quality. Many goods or tokens have some of the characteristics outlined above. However no good or token is money unless it can satisfy all three criteria.

Credit as money

Credit is often loosely referred to as money. However credit only satisfies items one and three of the above "Essential Characteristics of Money" criteria. Credit completely fails criterion number two. Hence to be strictly accurate credit is a money substitute and not money proper. This distinction between money and credit causes much confusion in discussions of monetary theory. In lay terms, and when convenient in academic discussion, credit and money are frequently used interchangeably. For example bank deposits are generally included in summations of the national broad money supply. However any detailed study of monetary theory needs to recognize the proper distinction between money and credit. The rest of this article frequently uses the term money in the looser sense of the word.

Desirable features of money

To function as money in a modern economy, money should possess a number of features:
- It must have a stable value; a value intrinsic in itself.
- It must be difficult to counterfeit, and the genuine must be easily recognizable.
- It must be easily divisible and transportable; precious metals are divisible & a high value to weight ratio.
- It must be fungible. That is, one unit or piece must be equivalent to another.
- It must be liquid, easily tradable, with a low spread between the prices to buy and sell.

Modern forms of money

When using money anonymously, the most common methods are cash (either coin or banknotes) and stored-value cards. When using money substitutes in such a way as to leave a financial record of the transaction, the most common methods are cheques, debit cards, credit cards, and digital cash.

Money and economics

Money is one of the most central topics studied in economics and forms its most cogent link to finance. The amount of money in an economy affects inflation and interest rates and hence has profound effects. The monetary policy of government aims to manage money, inflation and interest to affect output and employment. A monetary crisis can have very significant economic effects, particularly if it leads to monetary failure and the adoption of a much less efficient barter economy. This happened in Russia (for instance) during the 1990s. Modern economics also faces a difficulty in deciding what exactly 'is' money. See money supply. There have been many historical arguments regarding the combination of money's functions, some arguing that they need more separation and that a single unit is insufficient to deal with them all. These arguments are covered in financial capital which is a more general and inclusive term for all liquid instruments, whether or not they are a uniformly recognized tender.

History of money

See main article History of money Money has developed over the years from conch shells to sophisticated international banking systems. The history of money has generally seen commodity money replaced by more formal systems, as money has been progressively brought under the control of governments.

Private currencies

In many countries, the issue of private paper currencies has been severely restricted by law. commodity money In the United States, the Free Banking Era lasted between 1837 and 1866, during which almost anyone could issue their own paper money. States, municipalities, private banks, railroad and construction companies, stores, restaurants, churches and individuals printed an estimated 8,000 different monies by 1860. If the issuer went bankrupt, closed, left town, or otherwise went out of business the note would be worthless. Such organizations earned the nickname of "wildcat banks" for a reputation of unreliability and that they were often situated in far-off, unpopulated locales that were said to be more apt to wildcats than people. On the other hand, according to Lawrence H. White's article in [http://www.fee.org/vnews.php?nid=2794 FEE] "it turns out that “wildcat” banking is largely a myth. Although stories about crooked banking practices are entertaining—and for that reason have been repeated endlessly by textbooks—modern economic historians have found that there were in fact very few banks that fit any reasonable definition of wildcat bank." The National Bank Act of 1863 ended the "wildcat bank" period. In Australia, the Bank Notes Tax Act of 1910 basically shut down the circulation of private currencies by imposing a prohibitive tax on the practice. Many other nations have similar such policies that eliminate private sector competition. In Scotland and Northern Ireland private sector banks are licensed to print their own paper money by the government. Today there are several privately issued digital currencies in circulation that function as money. Transactions in these currencies represent an annual turnover value in billions of US dollars. Many of these private currencies are backed by older forms of money such as gold (digital gold currencies). Of course, because money is the fruit of power and can be used for wielding or gaining more power, the one who accepts gold as legitimate money gives power to the people who own gold's stocks. It is possible for privately issued money to be backed by any other material, although some people argue about perishable materials. After all, gold, or platinum, or silver, have in some regards less utility than previously (their electrical properties notwithstanding), while currency backed by energy (measured in joules) or by transport (measured in kilogramme
- kilometre/hour) or by food [http://www.economist.com/markets/bigmac/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3503641] is also possible and may be accepted by the people, if legalised. It is important to understand though that, as long as money is above all an agreement to use something as a medium of exchange, its up to the community (or to the minority which holds the power) to decide whether money should be backed by whatever material or should be totally virtual. Though these private, especially digital, monies has had some modest success, governments have established a coercive monopoly on what currency may be used in lending by enacting legal tender laws. One may borrow a private currency but repay the loan with a legal tender that has subsequently devalued against the private alternative, with the lender being required by law to accept it. This large and apparently insurmountable risk to lenders severely limits the proliferation of private money, as the interest rate would have to be exhorbitant to compensate for this tremendous risk premium.

Money supply

Main article: Money supply The money supply is the amount of money available within a specific economy available for purchasing goods or services. The supply is usually considered as four escalating categories M0, M1, M2 and M3. The categories grow in size with M3 representing all forms of money (including credit) and M0 being just base money (coins, bills, and central bank deposits). M0 is also money that can satisfy private banks' reserve requirements. In the United States, the Federal Reserve is responsible for controlling the money supply (monetary policy).

Growing the money supply

Historically money was a metal (gold, silver, etc,) or other object that was difficult to duplicate, but easy to transport and divide. Later it consisted of paper notes, now issued by all modern governments. With the rise of modern industrial capitalism it has gone through several phases including but not limited to: #Bank notes - paper issued by banks as an interest-bearing loan. (These were common in the 19th century but not seen anymore.) #Paper notes, coins with varying amounts of precious metal (usually called legal tender) issued by various governments. There is also a near-money in the form of interest bearing bonds issued by governments with solid credit ratings. #Bank credit through the creation of chequable deposits in the granting of various loans to business, government and individuals. (It is critical that we understand that when a bank makes a loan, that is new money and when a loan is paid off that money is destroyed. Only the interest paid on it remains.) Thus, all debt denominated in dollars -- mortgages, money markets, credit card debt, travelers cheques -- is money. However, the creation of dollar-denominated debt (or any generic obligation) only creates money when a bank (as opposed to a credit card company) is granting the debt. "High powered" money (M0) is created when the elected government spends money into the economy. The money created in the bank loan process is bank money and these two forms of money trade at par one with the other. Banks are limited in the amount of loans they can grant and thus in the amount of bank money (credit) they can create by both the net assets of the bank and by reserve requirements (M0). For most intents and purposes the aggregate of M0 multiplied by the reserve requirement will be an indicator of (but this is somewhat greater than) the aggregate of loans. If additional money is needed in the banking system to allow more loans the Federal Reserve will create money by purchasing Bonds or T-bills with money created from the ether. No matter who sells the bonds the money will end up in the banking system as M0. The Fed could purchase lolly pops if that would accomplish the purpose of expansion better than a purchase of Bonds.

Shrinking the money supply (M3)

Perhaps the most obvious way money can be destroyed is if paper bills are burned or taken out of circulation by the central bank. But, it should be remembered that legal tender usually constitutes less than 4% of the broad money supply. Another way money can be destroyed is when any bank loan is paid off or any government bond or T-Bill is purchased by the private sector. The money value of the contract or bond is destroyed — taken out of circulation. If a bank loan is defaulted upon then the "interest" paid by other borrowers will be employed to cover the default. A very large part of the "interest" paid on bank loans is actually a finance charge employed to cover bad loans. The group of good borrowers pay the loan instead of the original borrower. In cases where the default is huge such as loans to foreign governments Fed intervention has, in the past, rescued the banks. In this instance it would seem that the taxpayers and/or money holders (savers) will pay the debt. The effects on the money supply will be controlled, again, by the level of bond purchase or redemption or the level of T-Bill sales or purchases by the Treasury. Money can be destroyed if savers withdraw funds from a bank, in which case that money can no longer be used for lending. Bank savings are actually a kind of loans — savers loan their money to a bank at a low interest rate or merely in exchange for the benefit of convenience or its security (accepting that they lose a small amount of value to inflation). The bank may use this loan to manage its liabilities (its deposit liabilities created by loans). It must be recalled that the federal reserve banking system is mostly a closed system. A check written on bank A gets deposited in Bank B and a check written on bank B gets deposited in Bank C and a check on bank C gets deposited in bank A. At the end of the day the bankers go have a beer and see who needs to borrow from whom:) On a good day very little borrowing needs to be done because a bank gets as much in new deposits as it does in paid out funds. Even if a bank is short of reserves it can borrow the reserves from another bank at the discount rate. In extreme forms, a bank run or panic may drive a bank into insolvency and, if uninsured, the savings of all its depositors are lost. Such bank failures were a major cause of the tremendous contraction in the money supply that occurred during the Great Depression, particularly in the United States. In that country many banking reforms were subsequently enacted during the New Deal, including the creation of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation to guarantee private bank deposits.

External links

- [http://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Econ/EconShep.htm Philosophy of Money] by Alla Sheptun
- [http://www.eh.net/ehresources/howmuch/poundq.php How much is that worth today?] - Comparing the purchasing power of money in Britain from 1600 to any other year up to 2002.
- [http://www.metrum.org/measures/heraion.htm The Heraion Standard. The first attempt to create money.]
- [http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=100362&org=NSF Shell Beads from South African Cave Show Modern Human Behavior 75,000 Years Ago]
- [http://www.chabad.org/article.asp?AID=69943 Jewish view of money] ko:돈 ja:貨幣 simple:Money

Dice

: For other uses, see either Die or Dice (disambiguation). Dice (disambiguation) A die (Old French de, from Latin datum "something given or played" [http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/die_2?view=uk]) is a small polyhedral object (usually a cube) suitable as a gambling device (especially for craps or sic bo). Traditionally, a die is seldom seen alone, rather than as one of a pair of identical dice that are sized to be comfortably rolled or thrown, together, from a user's hand. (The singular word "die" is therefore rare, and treating "dice" as interchangeably singular or plural is not uncommon.) A traditional die is a cube (often with corners slightly rounded), marked on each of its six faces with a different number of circular patches or pits called pips. All of these pips have the same appearance within a pair (or larger set) of dice, and are sized for ease of recognizing the pattern the pips on one face form. The design as a whole is aimed at each die providing one randomly determined integer, in the range from one to six, with each of those values being equally likely. More generally, a variety of analogous devices are often described as dice, but necessarily in a context, or with a word or two preceding "die" or "dice", that avoids the assumption that traditional dice are intended. Such specialized dice may have cubical or other polyhedral shapes, with faces marked with various collections of symbols, and be used to produce other random results than one through six. There are also "loaded" or "crooked" dice (especially otherwise traditional ones), meant to produce skewed or even predictable results, for purposes of deception or amusement.

Ordinary dice

integer The most common dice are small cubes 1 to 2 cm along an edge, whose faces are numbered from one to six (usually by patterns of dots called pips). It is traditional to assign pairs of numbers that total seven to opposite faces (it has been since at least classical antiquity); this implies that at one vertex the faces 1, 2 and 3 intersect. It leaves one other abstract design choice: the faces representing 1, 2 and 3 respectively can be placed in either clockwise or anti-clockwise order about this vertex. Dice are thrown to provide (supposedly uniformly distributed) random numbers for gambling and other games and thus are a type of hardware random number generator. However, because the numbers on toy dice are marked with small indentations, slightly more material is removed from the higher numbered faces. This results in a small bias, and they do not provide fair (uniform) random numbers. Casino dice have markings that are flush with the surface and come very close to providing true uniformly distributed random numbers. Dice are thrown, singly or in groups, from the hand or from a cup or box designed for the purpose, onto a flat surface. The face of each die that is uppermost when it comes to rest provides the value of the throw. A typical dice game today is craps, wherein two dice are thrown at a time, and wagers are made on the total value of up-facing spots on the two dice. They are also frequently used to randomize allowable moves in board games such as Backgammon.

Probability

For a single roll, the probability of rolling each value, 1 through 6, is exactly 1 in 6. For a double roll, however, the total of both rolls is not evenly distributed, but is distributed in a triangular curve, as follows: TOTAL PROBABILITY ----- ----------- 2 1/36 3 2/36 4 3/36 5 4/36 6 5/36 7 6/36 8 5/36 9 4/36 10 3/36 11 2/36 12 1/36 For the total of rolls of three or more dice, the curve becomes more bell-shaped with each additional die (according to the central limit theorem). The probability of rolling the same number repeatedly goes down by 1/6 with each additional die: DICE PROBABILITY ---- ----------- 2 1/6 3 1/36 4 1/216 5 1/1296

History

Dice probably evolved from the ankle bones of hoofed animals (such as oxen), colloquially known as "knucklebones", which are approximately tetrahedral. Even today, dice are sometimes colloquially referred to as "bones", as in "shake them bones". Ivory, bone, wood, metal, and stone materials have been commonly used, though the use of plastics is now nearly universal. It is almost impossible to trace clearly the development of dice as distinguished from knucklebones, on account of the confusing of the two games by the ancient writers. It is certain, however, that both were played in times antecedent to those of which we possess any written records. plastic The fact that dice have been used throughout the Orient from time immemorial, as has been proved by excavations from ancient tombs, seems to point clearly to an Asiatic origin. Dicing is mentioned as an Indian game in the Rig-veda. In its primitive form knucklebones was essentially a game of skill played by women and children. In a derivative form of knucklebones, the four sides of the bones received different values and were counted as with modern dice. Gambling with three or sometimes two dice was a very popular form of amusement in Greece, especially with the upper classes, and was an almost invariable accompaniment to banquets (symposium). The Romans were passionate gamblers, especially in the luxurious days of the Roman Empire, and dicing was a favourite form, though it was forbidden except during the Saturnalia. Horace derided what he presented as a typical youth of the period, who wasted his time amid the dangers of dicing instead of taming his charger and giving himself up to the hardships of the chase. Throwing dice for money was the cause of many special laws in Rome. One of these stated that no suit could be brought by a person who allowed gambling in his house, even if he had been cheated or assaulted. Professional gamblers were common, and some of their loaded dice are preserved in museums. The common public-houses were the resorts of gamblers, and a fresco is extant showing two quarrelling dicers being ejected by the indignant host. Tacitus states that the Germans were passionately fond of dicing, so much so, indeed, that, having lost everything, they would even stake their personal liberty. Centuries later, during the middle ages, dicing became the favourite pastime of the knights, and both dicing schools and guilds of dicers existed. After the downfall of feudalism the famous German mercenaries called landsknechts established a reputation as the most notorious dicing gamblers of their time. Many of the dice of the period were curiously carved in the images of men and beasts. In France both knights and ladies were given to dicing. This persisted through repeated legislation, including interdictions on the part of St. Louis in 1254 and 1256. In Japan, China, Korea, India, and other Asiatic countries, dice have always been popular and are so still. The markings on Chinese dominoes evolved from the markings on dice, taken two at a time.

Loaded dice

A loaded or gaffed die is a die that has been tampered with to land with a selected side facing upwards more often than it would simply by chance. There are methods of creating loaded dice, including having some edges round and other sharp and slightly off square faces. If the dice are not transparent, weights can be added to one side or the other. They can be modified to produce winners ("passers") or losers ("miss-outs"). "Tappers" have a drop of mercury in a reservoir at the center of the cube, with a capillary tube leading to another mercury reservoir at the side of the cube. The load is activated by tapping the die on the table so that the mercury leaves the center and travels to the side. Often one can see the circle of the cut used to remove the face and bury the weight. In a professional die, the weight is inserted in manufacture; in the case of a wooden die, this can be done by carving the die around a heavy inclusion, like a pebble around which a tree has grown. A variable loaded die is hollow with a small weight and a semi-solid substance inside, usually wax, whose melting point is just lower than the temperature of the human body. This allows the cheater to change the loading of the die by breathing on it or holding it firmly in hand, causing the wax to melt and the weight to drift down, making the chosen opposite face more likely to land up. A less common type of variable die can be made by inserting a magnet into the die and embedding a coil of wire in the game table. Then, either leave the current off and let the die roll unchanged or run current through the coil to increase the likelihood that the north side or the south side will land on the bottom depending on the direction of the current. Transparent acetate dice, used in all reputable casinos, are harder to tamper with.

Materials

It is unknown of what material the earliest polyhedral dice were made. A pair of icosahedral (20-sided) dice dating from Roman times are on display at the British Museum. It is possible that polyhedral dice were used by even earlier cultures. Precision casino dice, used for the game of craps, are made from cellulose acetate. These dice may have a polished finish, making them transparent, or a sand finish, making them translucent. While red is the most common color, they are also seen in casinos in green, amber, blue, or other colors. Casino dice have their pips drilled, and then filled flush with a paint of the same specific gravity as the acetate, such that the dice remain in perfect balance. In casino play, a stick of 5 dice are used, all stamped with a matching serial number to prevent a cheat from substituting a die. Polyhedral dice are usually made of plastic, though infrequently metal, wooden, and semi-precious stone dice can be found. Early polyhedral dice were made of a soft plastic that would easily wear as the die was used. Typical wear and tear would gradually round the corners and edges of the die until it was unusable. Modern polyhedral dice are typically made of high-impact plastic and can withstand years of use without visible wear. Lou Zocchi and his company Gamescience not only always guaranteed that their high-impact plastic dice would not wear down the way other companies' dice did, but for years criticized major dice manufacturers for crafting unfair, loaded dice through sloppy polishing techniques and substandard materials. Polyhedral dice can be purchased at most hobby stores in numerous combinations. In the early days of role-playing games, most dice came with the numbers unpainted and players took great care in painting their sets of dice. Many early dice came with two sides with the numbers zero through nine on them; half of the sides had to be painted a contrasting color to signify the "high" side.

Cubical dice with faces representing values other than digits 1 through 6

As noted, the faces of most dice are labelled to using an unbroken series of whole numbers, starting at one (or zero), expressed with either pips or digits. Common exceptions include:
- colour dice (e.g., with the colours of the playing pieces used in a game)
- Poker dice, with the following labels somewhat reminiscent of the names of standard playing cards:
- Nine (of spades; black)
- Ten (of diamonds; red)
- Jack (blue)
- Queen (blue)
- King (red)
- Ace (of clubs; black)
- dice with letters (e.g. in Boggle)
- doubling dice (2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64)
- average dice (2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 5)
- cheat dice, such as:
- one face each with two through five, and two with sixes, or
- for craps, a pair of dice in which one die has five on each face, and its mate has a mixture of twos and sixes, guaranteeing rolls of seven or 11
- so-called "3-sided dice", each a cubical die with each of its faces marked identically to exactly one of the other faces, yielding three equally likely distinguishable outcomes, for example:
- those (usually abbreviated d3) in some role-playing games, labelled 1, 2, and 3 respectively, or
- FUDGE dice, with two minus (−) sides, two blank sides, and two plus (+) sides; a throw of n fudge dice yields an integer from −n to n, by reading "−" as "−1" and "+" as "+1" and summing the faces showing.
- random direction dice also known as scatter dice. The dice have arrows on each side, the outcome of a roll is a random direction. Scatter dice are used in tabletop wargames such as Warhammer Fantasy Battle to determine random movements of troops, wind direction or direction of misfired arms.

Non-cubical dice

Warhammer Fantasy Battle Polyhedral dice are dice with more or fewer than six sides. They were once almost exclusively used by fortune-tellers and in other occult practices, but they have become popular lately among players of wargames, trading card games, German-style board games, and role-playing games. Although polyhedral dice are a relative novelty during modern times, some ancient cultures appear to have used them in games (as evidenced by the presence of two icosahedral dice dating from the days of ancient Rome on display in the British Museum). Such dice are typically plastic, and have faces bearing numerals rather than patterns of dots. Reciprocally symmetric numerals are distinguished with a dot in the lower right corner (6. vs 9.) or by being underlined (6 vs 9). Dice with various numbers of faces are often described by their numbers of sides, with a d6 being a six-sided die, a d10 a ten-sided die, and so forth. When more than one die is used, the standard terminology is to have two numbers separated by the 'd' - Number of Dice 'd' Number of sides on each die. Hence 2d6 is simply Two Six-Sided Dice, suitable for games of Monopoly or Craps. The platonic solids are commonly used to make dice of 4, 6, 8, 12, and 20 faces. Other shapes can be found to make dice with 5, 7, 10, 16, 24, 30, 34, 50, or 100 sides, but other than the 10 sided, they are rarely used. (See Zocchihedron.) A large number of different probability distributions can be obtained using these dice in various ways; for example, 10-sided dice (or 20-sided dice labeled with single digits) are often used in pairs to produce a linearly-distributed random percentage. Summing multiple dice approximates a normal distribution (a "bell curve"), while eliminating high or low throws can be used to skew the distribution in various ways. Using these techniques, games can closely approximate the real probability distributions of the events they simulate. There is some controversy over whether manufacturing processes create genuinely "fair" dice (dice that roll with even distributions over their number span). Casino dice are legally required to be fair; those used by all others hold no such requirement. Spherical dice also exist; these function like the plain cubic dice, but have an octahedral internal cavity in which a weight moves which causes them to settle in one of six orientations when rolled. Cowry shells or coins may be used as a kind of two-sided dice ("d2"). (Because of their shape, cowry shells probably do not yield a uniform distribution.)

Standard variations

uniform distribution The most common non-cubical dice — often sold in sets of five or six that are each differently shaped but with the same pair of background and marking colors — include one each of the five Platonic solids, which are highly symmetrical. The six-die versions add the pentagonal trapezohedron, in which the faces (identical to one another as to angles and edge lengths) each have two different lengths of side, and three different sizes of angle; the corners at which multiple faces meet are also of two different kinds.

Rarer variations

Often the names of the dice appear in formulas for calculating game parameters: e.g., hit points. '6d8+10', for example, will yield a number between 16 (6×1+10) and 58 (6×8+10), as it means 'Roll an eight-sided die six times and add ten to the total of all the rolls'. Occasionally they may be written '10×d6+20' or '1d6×10+20'; this means 'roll one six-sided die. Multiply it by ten and add twenty', and avoids boring repetitive dice-rolling at the expense of reducing the number of possible results (i.e., 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80 are the only possible outcomes) compared to rolling the die 10 times (yielding any number between 30 and 80).

Application in role-playing games

trapezohedron The fantasy role-playing game Dungeons & Dragons introduced the use of polyhedral dice during modern times and paved the way for their use in other role-playing games, using 20, 12, 10, 8 and 4 sided dice in addition to the traditional 6 sided die. Players use polyhedral dice together in a number of ways. For example, often a d10 is used in conjunction with a d6 instead of using a d20. If the d6 displays a 1, 2 or 3, the number on the d10 is resolved as 1–10. If the d6 displays a 4, 5 or 6, the number shown on the d10 is resolved to 11-20 ("1" is 11, "2" is 12, etc.). In cases like this, almost any sided die can be used as a "resolver". Two d10 are often used to generate a number between 1 and 100. When tossing these dice, the player indicates which die is "high" (representing the tens position). Dungeons & Dragons

Use of Dice for Divination

Some people believe that dice can be used for divination. Using dice for such a purpose is called cleromancy. A pair of standard 6-sided dice is generally used. Astrological dice are a specialized set of three 12-sided dice for divination, using the concepts of astrology and containing astrological symbols for the planets, the zodiac signs and the astrological houses. The first die represents planets, the Sun, the Moon, and two nodes (North Node and South Node). The second die represents the 12 zodiac signs, and the third represents the 12 houses. In simplified terms, the planets, etc. could represent the 'actor'; the zodiac signs could represent the 'role' being played by the actor; and the house could represent the 'scene' in which the actor plays. Rune dice are a specialized set of dice for divination (runecasting), using the symbols of the runes printed on the dice.

References

- Persi Diaconis and Joseph B. Keller. "Fair Dice". The American Mathematical Monthly, 96(4):337-339, 1989. (Discussion of dice that are fair "by symmetry" and "by continuity".)
- Bias and Runs in Dice Throwing and Recording: A Few Million Throws. G. R. Iverson. W. H. Longcour, et al. Psychometrika, Vol. 36, No. 1, March 1971
- Knizia, Reiner (1999). Dice Games Properly Explained. Elliot Right Way Books. ISBN 0716021129.

External links

- [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Dice.html MathWorld: Dice] Analysis of dice probabilities.
- [http://www.maa.org/editorial/mathgames/mathgames_05_16_05.html Fair Dice] is an illustrated [http://www.maa.org/news/mathgames.html Math Games] column about all the possible fair dice, and the mathematical reasons why other shapes are not fair.
- [http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/w/x/wxk116/roma/rbgames.html Roman Board Games] (See, in particular, [http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/w/x/wxk116/roma/tali.html Tali] and [http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/w/x/wxk116/roma/tesserae.html Tesserae].)
- [http://hjem.get2net.dk/Klaudius/Dice.htm Properties of Dice] is a page describing all solids that make for provably fair dice.
- [http://www.openroleplaying.org/tools/dieroller/ Openroleplaying.org's automated Die Roller] - allows rolling any combination of any die using standard RPG 'Dice Equations')
- Category:Dice games Category:Randomness Category:Consumer goods ko:주사위 ja:サイコロ simple:Dice th:ลูกเต๋า

Monopoly

:This article is about the state of a player in economics. For the Parker Brothers board game see Monopoly (game). In economics, a monopoly (from the Greek monos, one + polein, to sell) is defined as a persistent market situation where there is only one provider of a kind of product or service. Monopolies are characterized by a lack of economic competition for the good or service that they provide and a lack of viable substitute goods. Monopoly should be distinguished from monopsony, in which there is only one buyer of the product or service; it should also, strictly, be distinguished from the (similar) phenomenon of a cartel. In a monopoly a single firm is the sole provider of a product or service; in a cartel a centralized institution is set up to partially coordinate the actions of several independent providers (which is a form of oligopoly).

Forms of monopoly

Monopolies are often distinguished based on the circumstances under which they arise; the main distinctions are between a monopoly that is the result of law (government-granted monopoly and government monopoly) alone; one that arises from the cost structure of the industry (natural monopoly); and one that arise by other means (eg one firm simply outcompeting all other firms; illegal behaviour; etc). Advocates of economic liberalism assert that a more fundamental way of classifying monopolies is to distinguish those that arise and exist due to violation of the principles of a free market (coercive monopoly) from those that arise and are maintained by consistently outcompeting all other firms.

Legal monopoly

A monopoly based on laws explicitly preventing competition is a legal monopoly or de jure monopoly. When such a monopoly is granted to a private party, it is a government-granted monopoly; when it is operated by government itself, it is a government monopoly or state monopoly. A government monopoly may exist at different levels of government (eg just for one region or locality); a state monopoly is specifically operated by a national government. An example of a "de jure" monopoly is AT&T, which was granted monopoly power by the US government, only to be broken up in 1982 following a Sherman Antitrust suit.

Natural monopoly

Main article: Natural monopoly A natural pool is a monopoly that arises in industries where economies of scale are so large that a single firm can supply the entire market without exhausting them. In these industries competition will tend to be eliminated as the largest (often the first) firm develops a monopoly through its cost advantage. In these industries monopoly may be more economically efficient than competition, although because of potential dynamic efficiencies this is not necessarily clear-cut. Natural monopoly arises when there are large capital costs relative to variable costs, which arises typically in network industries such as electricity and water. It should be distinguished from network effects, which operate on the demand side and do not affect costs. Counter-intuitively, the case of a monopolization of a key source of a natural resource is not considered a natural monopoly, because it is based on the running down of natural capital rather than the amortization of an investment in physical or human capital. Whether an industry is a natural monopoly may change over time through the introduction of new technologies. A natural monopoly industry can also be artificially broken up by government, although (eg electricity liberalization, eg Railtrack) the results are at best mixed. Advocates of free markets, such as libertarians, assert that a natural monopoly is a practical impossibility, and, given that a monopoly is a persistent rather than a transient situation, that there is no historical precedent of one ever existing. They say that the idea of "natural monopoly" is mere theoretical abstraction to justify expanding the scope of government, and that it in the case of nationalization or deprivatization it is the government intervention itself that creates a monopoly where one did not actually exist.

Local monopoly

A local monopoly is a monopoly of a market in a particular area, usually a town or even a smaller locality: the term is used to differentiate a monopoly that is geographically limited within a country, as the default assumption is that a monopoly covers the entire industry in a given country. This may include the ability to charge (to some extent) monopoly pricing, for example in the case of the only gas station on an expressway rest stop, which will serve a certain number of motorists who lack fuel to reach the next station and must pay whatever is charged.

Monopolistic competition

Main article: Monopolistic competition Industries which are dominated by a single firm may allow the firm to act as a near-monopoly or "de facto monopoly", a practice known in economics as monopolistic competition. Common historical examples arguably include corporations such as Microsoft and Standard Oil (Standard's market share of refining was 64% in competition with over 100 other refiners at the time of the trial that resulted in the government-forced breakup). Practices which these entities may be accused of include dumping products below cost to harm competitors, creating tying arrangements between their products, and other practices regulated under antitrust law. Large corporations often attempt to monopolize markets through horizontal integration, in which a parent company consolidates control over several small, seemingly diverse companies (sometimes even using different branding to create the illusion of marketplace competition). Such a monopoly is known as a horizontal monopoly. A magazine publishing firm, for example, might publish many different magazines on many different subjects, but it would still be considered to engage in monopolistic practices if the intent of doing this was to control the entire magazine-reader market, and prevent the emergence of competitors. A monopoly arrived at through vertical integration is called a vertical monopoly. A common example is vertical integration of electricity distribution with electricity generation, which is common because it reduces or eliminates certain costly risks.

Coercive monopoly

Main article: coercive monopoly A coercive monopoly is one that arises and whose existence is maintained as the result of any sort of activity that violates the principle of a free market and is therefore insulated from competition which would otherwise be a potential threat to its superior status. The term is typically used by those who favor laissez-faire capitalism.

Economic analysis

Primary characteristics of a monopoly

- Single Seller :A pure monopoly is an industry in which a single firm is the sole producer of a good or the sole provider of a service. This is usually caused by a blocked entry.
- No Close Substitutes :The product or service is unique in ways which go beyond brand identity, and cannot be easily replaced (a monopoly on water from a certain spring, sold under a certain brand name, is not a true monopoly; neither is Coca-Cola, even though it is differentiated from its competition in flavor).
- Price Maker :In a pure monopoly a single firm controls the total supply of the whole industry and is able to exert a significant degree of control over the price, by changing the quantity supplied (an example of this would be the situation of viagra before competing drugs emerged). In subtotal monopolies (for example diamonds or petroleum at present) a single organization controls enough of the supply that even if it limits the quantity, or raises prices, the other suppliers will be unable to make up the difference and take significant amounts of market share.
- Blocked Entry :The reason a pure monopolist has no competitors is that certain barriers keep would be competitors from entering the market. Depending upon the form of the monopoly these barriers can be economic, technological, legal (basic patents on certain drugs), or of some other type of barrier that completely prevents other firms from entering the market.

Monopolistic pricing

viagra In economics a company is said to have monopoly power if it faces a downward sloping demand curve (see supply and demand). This is in contrast to a price taker that faces a horizontal demand curve. A price taker cannot choose the price that they sell at, since if they set it above the equilibrium price, they will sell none, and if they set it below the equilibrium price, they will have an infinite number of buyers (and be making less money than they could if they sold at the equilibrium price). In contrast, a business with monopoly power can choose the price they want to sell at. If they set it higher, they sell less. If they set it lower, they sell more. In most real markets, the drop in demand associated with a price increase is due partly to losing customers to other sellers and partly to customers who are no longer willing or able to buy the product. In a pure monopoly market, only the latter effect is at work, and so, particularly for inflexible commodities such as medical care, the drop in units sold as prices rise may be much less dramatic than one might expect. If a monopoly can only set one price it will set it where marginal cost (MC) equals marginal revenue (MR) as seen on the diagram on the right. This can be seen on a supply and demand diagram for the firm. This will be at the quantity Qm; and at the price Pm;. This is above the competitive price of Pc and with a smaller quantity that the competitive quantity of Qc. The profit the monopoly gains is the shaded in area labeled profit. As long as the price elasticity of demand (in absolute value) for most customers is less than one, it is very advantageous to increase the price: the seller gets more money for less goods. With an increase of the price the price elasticity tends to rise, and in the optimum mentioned above it will for most customers be above one. A formula gives the relation between price, marginal cost of production and demand elasticity which maximizes a monopoly profit:

\frac = \frac

(known as Lerner Index). The economy as a whole loses out when monopoly power is used in this way, since the extra profit earned by the firm will be smaller than the loss in consumer surplus. This difference is known as a deadweight loss.

Calculating monopoly output

The single price monopoly profit maximisation problem is as follows: The monopoly's profit is its total revenue less its total cost. Let the price it sets as a market response be a function of the quantity it produces (Q)

P(Q)

and let its cost function be as a function of quantity

C(Q)

. The monopoly's revenue is the product of the price and the quantity it produces. Hence its profit is:

\Pi\ = P(Q)\cdot Q - C(Q)

Taking the first order derivative with respect to quantity yields:

\frac = P'(Q)\cdot Q + P(Q) - C'(Q)

Setting this equal to zero for maximisation:

\frac = P'(Q)\cdot Q + P(Q) - C'(Q)=0

\frac = P'(Q)\cdot Q + P(Q)= C'(Q)

i.e. marginal revenue = marginal cost, provided

\frac = P

(Q)\cdot Q + (Q+1)\cdot P'(Q) +P(Q) - C(Q) < 0 (the rate of marginal revenue is less than the rate of marginal cost, for maximisation). This procedure assumes that the monopolist knows exactly which is the demand function. For a discussion on a monopolist who does not know it, see http://www.economicswebinstitute.org/essays/monopolist.htm where a free software is available as well.

Monopoly and efficiency

In standard economic theory (see analysis above), a monopoly will sell a lower quantity of goods at a higher price than firms would in a purely competitive market. In this way the monopoly will secure monopoly profits by appropriating some or all of the consumer surplus, as although the higher price deters some consumers from purchasing, most are willing to pay the higher price. Assuming that costs stay the same, this does not lead to an outcome which is inefficient in the sense of Pareto efficiency; no-one could be made better off by shifting resources without making someone else worse off. However, total social welfare declines compared with perfect competition, because some consumers must choose second-best products. It is also often argued that monopolies tend to become less efficient and innovative over time, becoming "complacent giants", because they don't have to be efficient or innovative to compete in the marketplace. Sometimes this very loss of efficiency can raise the potential value of a competitor enough to overcome market entry barriers, or provide incentive for research and investment into new alternatives. The theory of contestable markets argues that in some circumstances (private) monopolies are forced to behave as if there were competition, because of the risk of losing that monopoly to new entrants, or because of the availability in the longer-term of substitutes in other markets. For example, a canal monopoly in the late eighteenth century United Kingdom was worth a lot more than in the late nineteenth century, because of the introduction of railways as a substitute. Some argue that it can be good to allow a firm to attempt to monopolize a market, since practices such as dumping can benefit consumers in the short term; and once the firm grows too big, it can then be dealt with via regulation. (This is a rather optimistic view of how effectively regulation can substitute for competition.) When monopolies are not broken through the open market, often a government will step in to either regulate the monopoly, turn it into a publicly-owned monopoly, or forcibly break it up (see Antitrust law). Public utilities, often being natural monopolies and less susceptible to efficient breakup, are often strongly regulated or publicly-owned. AT&T and Standard Oil are debatable examples of the breakup of a private monopoly. When AT&T was broken up into the "Baby Bell" components, MCI, Sprint, and other companies were able to compete effectively in the long-distance phone market and started to take phone traffic from the less efficient AT&T.

Historical examples

Salt

Until common salt (sodium chloride) was mined in quantity in comparatively recent times, its availability was subject to the vagaries of climate and environment. A combination of strong sunshine and low humidity or an extension of peat marshes was necessary for winning salt from the sea - the most plentiful source - by solar evaporation or boiling. Mines and inland salt springs being scarce and often located in hostile areas like the Dead Sea or the salt mines in the Sahara desert, they required well-organised security for transport, storage and highly monopolised distribution. Changing sea levels flooded many of these sources during certain periods and caused salt "famines" and communities were left to the mercy of those who monopolised these few inland sources. The "Gabelle", a notoriously high tax levied upon salt, played a role in the start of the French Revolution and is possibly the most cruel example in recent history. Anyone was allowed to purchase salt; however, strict legal controls were in place over who was allowed to sell and distribute salt. Advocates of laissez-faire capitalism, such as the Austrian school, maintain that a salt monopoly would never develop without such government intervention. External link: [http://salt.org.il/frame_econ.html Salt and the evolution of monopoly (salt.org.il)]

Charles Darrow

Charles Darrow (August 10, 1889–August 29, 1967), was the patentor of the board game Monopoly. Darrow was a domestic-heater salesman from Germantown in southeastern Pennsylvania during the Great Depression. When Darrow lost his job at a sales company, he then tried to pitch his products at the Steel Pier of the popular tourist beach, Atlantic City. Darrow saw his neighbors and acquaintances play a home-made board game in which the object was to buy and sell property, so he got the idea to make one of those games by himself, with the help of his first son, William, and of his wife. He took the idea of naming the locations on his Monopoly game from locations in and around Atlantic City. The Darrow family initially made their game sets on flexible, round pieces of oilcloth instead of rigid, square carton. Charles drew the designs of the properties with drafting pens, and his son and wife filled in the spaces with colors and made the title deed cards and chance and community-chest cards. Charles Darrow then sold his sets of Monopoly at four dollars each, and, as demand for the sets increased, he patented the game in 1935 and then contracted a printing company from Philadelphia to print the Monopoly game boards on carton, and also the boxes for the sets. Later, the company Parker Brothers acquired the rights from Darrow to produce the game in large scale. Parker Brothers was acquired in the 1990s by the NYSE-traded company Hasbro from Pawtucket, Rhode Island. In 1973, a San Francisco State University economics professor, named Ralph Anspach, patented Anti-Monopoly, a game similar to Monopoly, and for this was sued by Parker Brothers. In a 10-year suit that went all the way to the Supreme Court, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals found that Darrow had copied down the rules directly (even the misspelling of Marven Gardens) from the game produced by Charles Todd, and which Todd had played with Quaker friends.

External links

- [http://www.washingtonfreepress.org/36/court.html Article covering court battle over Monopoly]
- [http://tt.tf/gamehist/mon-index.html Early history of Monopoly] Darrow, Charles Darrow, Charles Darrow, Charles Darrow, Charles Darrow, Charles Darrow, Charles Darrow, Charles Darrow, Charles

1999

1999 (MCMXCIX) is a common year starting on Friday, and was designated the International Year of Older Persons by the United Nations.

Events

- Kosovo War
- Y2K preparation was a major event in 1999 both in actual events and in media over-reporting.
- The human population of the world surpassed six billion. The United Nations Population Fund designated October 12 as the approximate date for this event.

January

- January 1 - Euro currency introduced.
- January 1 - An avalanche destroys a school gymnasium during New Year celebrations in Kangiqsualujjuaq in far northern Quebec, killing nine.
- January 2 - A brutal snowstorm smashes into the Midwestern USA, causing 14 inches (359 mm) of snow at Milwaukee, Wisconsin and 19 inches (487 mm) at Chicago, Illinois. In Chicago, temperatures plunge to -13°F (-25°C), and 68 deaths are reported.
- January 4 - Gunmen open fire on Shiite Muslims worshipping in an Islamabad mosque killing 16 people and injuring 25.
- January 12 - The remains of Christina Marie Williams were found three miles (5 km) from her home on the old Fort Ord military base.
- January 20 - The China News Service announces new government restrictions on Internet use aimed especially at Internet cafes.
- January 21 - War on Drugs: In one of the largest drug busts in American history, the United States Coast Guard intercepts a ship with over 9,500 pounds (4.3 t) of cocaine aboard. The ship was headed for Houston, Texas.
- January 25 - A 6.0 Richter scale earthquake hits western Colombia killing at least 1,000

February

- February 4 - Unarmed West African immigrant Amadou Diallo is shot dead by four plainclothes New York City police officers on an unrelated stake-out, inflaming race-relations in the city.
- February 5 - Mike Tyson is sentenced to a year's imprisonment, fined $5,000, and ordered to serve 2 years probation and perform 200 hours of community service for the August 31, 1998 assault on two people after a car accident.
- February 7 - King of Jordan, Hussein of Jordan, dies from cancer. His son Abdullah II then inherits the throne, and becomes King of Jordan.
- February 10 - Avalanches in the French Alps near Geneva kill at least ten.
- February 11 - Pluto, a planet with an irregular orbit, changes from the eighth to ninth planet furthest from the Sun. It had been the eighth furthest since 1979, and will become again in 2231.
- February 12 - President Bill Clinton is acquitted by the United States Senate in his impeachment trial
- February 12 - John Myatt and John Drewe are sentenced for art forgery for one and six years, respectively.
- February 16 - In Uzbekistan a bomb explodes and gunfire is heard at the government headquarters in an apparent assassination attempt against President Islam Karimov.
- February 16 - Across Europe, Kurdish rebels take over embassies and hold hostages after Turkey arrested one of their rebel leaders, Abdullah Öcalan.
- February 16 - In Jasper, Texas, testimony begins in the trial of John William King who is accused of dragging African American James Byrd Jr. to death in an apparent hate crime. King was later convicted and sentenced to the death penalty.
- February 22 - Moderate Iraqi Shiite cleric Mohammad Sadeq al-Sadr is assassinated.
- February 23 - Kurdish rebel leader Abdullah Öcalan is charged with treason in Ankara, Turkey.
- February 23 - White supremacist John William King is found guilty of kidnapping and killing African American James Byrd Jr by dragging him behind a truck for two miles (3 km).
- February 23 - An avalanche destroys the Austrian village of Galtür, killing 31.
- February 24 - LaGrand Case: The State of Arizona executes Karl LaGrand, a German national involved in an armed robbery that led to a death. Karl's brother Walter is executed a week later, in spite of Germany's legal action in the International Court of Justice to attempt to save him.
- February 27 - While trying to circumnavigate the world in a hot air balloon, Colin Prescot and Andy Elson set a new endurance record after being in a hot air balloon for 233 hours and 55 minutes.
- February 27 - Olusegun Obasanjo becomes Nigeria's first elected president since mid-1983.

March

- March 1 - One of four bombs detonated in Lusaka, Zambia, destroys the Angolan Embassy.
- March 1 - Rwandan Hutu rebels kill and hack to pieces eight foreign tourists at the Buhoma homestead, Uganda
- March 1 - The Convention on the Prohibition of Anti-Personnel Mines comes into force.
- March 3 - Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones begin their attempt to circumnavigate the world in a hot air balloon without stopping. Their journey ended in success on March 21.
- March 4 - Monica Lewinsky's book detailing her affair with Bill Clinton goes on sale in the United States
- March 4 - In a military court, Captain Richard Ashby of the United States Marines is acquitted of the charge of reckless flying which resulted in the deaths of 20 skiers in the Italian Alps when his low-flying jet hit a gondola cable.
- March 12 - Hungary, Poland and Czech Republic join NATO.
- March 15 - The European Commission under the presidency of Jacques Santer resigns over allegations of corruption.
- March 17 - The [http://www.roth-401k-forum.com/ Roth 401k] is introduced by Sen Roth Jr., William V.
- March 20 - Serbs launch an offensive in Bosnia
- March 21 - Bertrand Piccard and Brian Jones become the first to circumnavigate the Earth in a hot air balloon.
- March 22 - US pro-euthanasia doctor Jack Kevorkian goes on trial for murder in Pontiac, Michigan. He is later convicted of second-degree murder
- March 23 - Gunmen assassinate Paraguay's Vice President Luis María Argaña
- March 24 - NATO launches air strikes in Federal Republic of Yugoslavia which was refusing to sign a peace treaty. This marks the first time NATO attacked a sovereign country
- March 24 - Fire in the Mont Blanc Tunnel kills 39 people, closing the tunnel for nearly 3 years.
- March 26 - The Melissa worm attacks the Internet.
- March 26 - A jury in Michigan finds Dr. Jack Kevorkian guilty of second-degree murder for administering a lethal injection to a terminally ill man (the incident was videotaped and aired on September 17, 1998 edition of 60 Minutes)
- March 29 - For the first time, the Dow Jones Industrial Average closes above the 10000 mark at 10006.78.

April

- April 1 - Nunavut, an Inuit homeland, part of the Northwest Territories becomes Canada's third territory.
- April 5 - Two Libyans suspected of bringing down Pan Am flight 103 in 1988 are handed over to Scottish authorities for eventual trial in the Netherlands. The United Nations suspends sanctions against Libya
- April 5 - In Laramie, Wyoming, Russell Henderson pleads guilty to kidnapping and felony murder in order to avoid a possible death penalty conviction for the apparent hate crime killing of Matthew Shepard
- April 7 - Kosovo War: Kosovo's main border crossings are closed by Serbian forces to prevent ethnic Albanians from leaving
- April 7 - Bomb explodes in the Valley of the Fallen church in Spain - GRAPO claims responsibility
- April 9 - Ibrahim Baré Maînassara, president of Nigeria, is assassinated
- April 17 - A nail bomb explodes in the middle of a busy market in Brixton, South London
- April 18 - "The Great One" Wayne Gretzky plays his final game in the NHL.
- April 20 - Two Littleton, Colorado teenagers named Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold open fire on their teachers and fellow students. The teenagers killed 12 students and 1 teacher, and then killed themselves. See Columbine High School massacre.
- April 25 - End of term for Tuanku Jaafar ibni Almarhum Tuanku Abdul Rahman as the 10th Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia.
- April 26 - Sultan Salahuddin Abdul Aziz Shah ibni Almarhum Sultan Hisamuddin Alam Shah Al-Haj, Sultan of Selangor becomes the 11th Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia.
- April 28 - The first comic of Sexy Losers (then called "The Thin H Line") goes online. This webcomic would go on to be one of the most popular webcomics ever made, with a sustained level of unique IP address hits of approximately 1 million a week. It would also popularize the word "fap" as an onomatopoeia for masturbation, a sound effect widely used in anime-themed comics since.
- April 30 - Cambodia joins the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) bringing the total members to 10.
- April 30 - A third nail bomb (see April 17) explodes in the Admiral Duncan pub in Old Compton Street, Soho, London, killing a pregnant woman and two friends and injuring 70 others, including her husband. This was part of a hate campaign against ethnic minorities and gay people by David Copeland

May

David Copeland
- May 2 - Oliver Reed, British actor famous for starring in The Three Musketeers, The Four Musketeers, and The Assassination Bureau, dies of a heart attack in Malta while filming Gladiator.
- May 2 - Norman J. Sirnic and Karen Sirnic are murdered by Angel Maturino Resendiz in a parsonage in Weimar, Texas. They were his fourth and fifth victims in his fourth incident.
- May 3 - Photo driver licences and banknotes made out of polymer substrate are introduced to New Zealand.
- May 3 - A F5 tornado slams in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma killing 38 people. This was the strongest tornado ever. (See Oklahoma Tornado Outbreak)
- May 3 - The Dow Jones Industrial Average closes above 11,000 for the first time. It closes at 11,014.70.
- May 6 - Elections are held in Scotland and Wales for the new Scottish Parliament and National Assembly for Wales
- May 7 - A jury finds The Jenny Jones Show and Warner Bros liable in the shooting death of Scott Amedure after the show purposely deceived Jonathan Schmitz to appear on a secret same-sex crush episode.
- May 7 - Kosovo War: In Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, three Chinese embassy workers are killed and 20 wounded when a NATO aircraft mistakenly bombs the Chinese embassy in Belgrade
- May 7 - In Guinea-Bissau, President João Bernardo Vieira is ousted in a military coup
- May 8 - Nancy Mace becomes the first female cadet to graduate from The Military College of South Carolina.
- May 12 - David Steel becomes the first Presiding Officer (speaker) of the modern Scottish Parliament
- May 13 - in Italy Carlo Azeglio Ciampi is elected President of the republic
- May 17 - Ehud Barak is elected prime minister of Israel.
- May 19 - Star Wars: The Phantom Menace is released in theaters.
- May 20 - Bluetooth announced.
- May 23 - In Kansas City, Missouri, Owen Hart (Blue Blazer) falls 90 feet (30 m) to his death while being lowered into a World Wrestling Federation ring
- May 26 - Indian Air Force launches attack on intruding Pakistan backed militants in Kashmir sparking the Kargil War.
- May 26 - Manchester United win the UEFA Champions League at the Nou Camp stadium, Barcelona, beating Bayern Munich to lift their third major trophy in their unprecedented Treble, after winning the English Premier League and FA Cup.
- May 26 - Madejczyk Massacre Averted, Bridgman, Michigan school shooting plot
- May 26 - first Welsh Assembly for over 600 years opens in Cardiff
- May 27 - The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia in The Hague, Netherlands indicts Slobodan Milošević and four others for war crimes and crimes against humanity committed in Kosovo
- May 28 - In Milan, Italy, after 22 years of restoration work, Leonardo de Vinci's newly-restored masterpiece "The Last Supper" is put back on display.

June

- 'solid - the socialist youth is formed in Hannover, Germany
- June 2 - After decades of fighting off outside technological influences like television, the King of Bhutan allows television transmissions to commence in the Kingdom for the first time, coinciding with the King's silver jubilee (see Bhutan Broadcasting Service).
- June 5 - The AIS, the armed wing of FIS, agrees in principle to disband in Algeria.
- June 6 - In Brazil, 345 prisoners escape from Putim prison through the front gate
- June 7 - Garfield daily strips in colour.
- June 8 - The government of Colombia announces it will include the estimated value of the country's illegal drug crops, exceeding half a billion US dollars, in its gross national product.
- June 9 - Kosovo War: Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and NATO sign a peace treaty.
- June 10 - Kosovo War: NATO suspends its air strikes after Slobodan Milošević agrees to withdraw Serbian forces from Kosovo.
- June 12 - Kosovo War: Operation Joint Guardian begins - NATO-led United Nations peacekeeping force KFor enter the province of Kosovo in Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Texas Governor George W. Bush announces his intention to seek the Republican Party's nomination for President of the United States.
- June 15 - George Morber Senior and Carolyn Frederick are murdered by Angel Maturino Resendiz in Gorham, Illinois. They are his eighth and ninth victims, in his seventh and final incident.
- June 19 - Torino is picked as the host city of the 2006 Winter Olympics.

July

- July 4 - David Beckham and Victoria Adams are married.
- July 11 - India recaptures Kargil as Pakistan pulls out its troops and militants after international condemnation. India claim victory in the two-month conflict.
- July 16 - Off the coast of Martha's Vineyard, a plane piloted by John F. Kennedy Jr. crashes with his wife Carolyn Bessette Kennedy and her sister Lauren Bessette on board. All three are killed in the crash
- July 20 - Mercury program: Liberty Bell 7 is raised from the Atlantic Ocean.
- July 23 - Mohammed VI becomes King of Morocco.
- July 23 to July 25 - Woodstock 99 festival held in New York.
- July 23 - Hijack of ANA Flight 61 in Tokyo.
- July 25 - Lance Armstrong wins first Tour de France.
- July 27 - 21 die in a canyoning disaster near Interlaken, Switzerland.
- July 31 - Mark O. Barton kills 9 in Atlanta, Georgia
- July 31 - NASA intentionally crashes the Lunar Prospector spacecraft into the Moon, thus ending its mission to detect frozen water on the moon's surface.

August

- August 8 - The first edition of the Callatis Festival, the largest music &culture festival in Romania.
- August 9 - Russian President Boris Yeltsin fires his Prime Minister, Sergei Stepashin, and for the fourth time fires his entire cabinet
- August 10 - Buford O. Furrow, Jr. attempts a mass murder in Los Angeles
- August 10 - Atlantique Incident occurs as an intruding Pakistan navy plane is shot down in India. The incident sparks tensions between the two nations, coming just a month after the end of the Kargil War.
- August 11 - Total eclipse in Europe and Asia
- August 11 - An F-2 tornado rips through downtown Salt Lake City, Utah, killing one person and injuring over 100.
- August 17 - A 7.4-magnitude earthquake strikes Istanbul and northwestern Turkey, killing more than 17,000 and injuring 44,000. This earthquake was the first of a long series of unrelated but frequent earthquakes throughout the world during the years 1999 and 2000. Some connected the earthquake to the fact that the Umbra of the solar eclipse of August 11, was right above Istanbul.
- August 19 - In Belgrade, tens of thousands of Serbians rally to demand the resignation of Yugoslav President Slobodan Milošević

September

- September 7 - Earthquake strikes Athens resulting to more than 100 dead and 672 homes destroyed. It was not clear if it was related to the earlier earthquake of Turkey. That earthquake was the worst in Athens after 20 years. Both disasters were noted for resulting to a mutual assistance and better climate between the two 'rivalling' countries.
- September 8 - first of the series of Russian apartment bombings. The subsequent occurred on September 13, 16, and 22 (failed).
- September 9 - Sega released the Dreamcast worldwide. Breaking video game and other entertainment sales record in its first 24 hours of availability.
- September 21 - Chi-Chi earthquake occurred in central Taiwan, caused about 2,400 people dead.

October

- October - NASA loses one of its Mars probes, the Climate Orbiter
- October 5 - Thirty-one people die in the Ladbroke Grove rail crash, west of London, England.
- October 12 - Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif attempts to dismiss Army Chief General Pervez Musharraf and install ISI director Khwaja Ziauddin in his place. Senior Army generals refuse to accept the dismissal. Musharraf, who was out of the country, attempts to return in a commercial airliner. Sharif orders the Karachi airport to not allow the plane to land. The generals lead a coup, ousting Sharif's administration and taking over the airport. The plane lands with only a few minutes of fuel to spare, and Musharraf takes control of the government.
- October 12 - The 6 billionth person in the world, according to the UN is born in Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
- October 13 - The United States Senate rejects ratification of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT)
- October 15 ? National Geographic Society reveals the fossil of Archaeoraptor in a press conference (the fossil is later found to be a forgery)
- October 18 ? Michael Pawluk Michigan attorney sails solo-single-handed over 2,500 nautical miles (4600 km) on a 30 foot (10 m) boat when his wife demands "some space".
- October 25 - Golfer Payne Stewart, 42, dies in an aircraft accident.
- October 27 - Gunmen open fire in the Armenian parliament killing Prime Minister Vazgan Sarkisian, Parliament Chairman Karen Demirchian and 6 other members.
- October 27 - The New York Yankees complete a 4 game sweep of the Atlanta Braves to win their second consecutive World Series.
- October 31 - EgyptAir Flight 990 traveling from New York City to Cairo crashes off the coast of Nantucket, Massachusetts, killing all 217 on-board
- October 31 - Roman Catholic Church and Lutheran Church leaders sign the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, ending a centuries-old doctrinal dispute over the nature of faith and salvation.

November

- November 5 - United States v. Microsoft: US District Judge Thomas Penfield Jackson issues a preliminary ruling that the software company Microsoft had "monopoly power" (on April 3, 2000 Jackson found that Microsoft violated the Sherman Anti-Trust Act).
- November 6 - Australians vote to keep the British queen as their head of state
- November 18 - In College Station, Texas, 12 are killed and 28 injured at Texas A&M University when a huge bonfire under construction collapses.
- November 19 - In Istanbul, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) ends a two-day summit by calling for a political settlement in Chechnya and adopting a Charter for European Security
- November 20 - The People's Republic of China launches the first Shenzhou spacecraft
- November 26 - Earthquake and Tsunami in Vanuatu
- November 27 - Labour Party elected in New Zealand general election. Helen Clark first Elected Woman Prime Minster in New Zealand History.
- November 28 - A man wielding a samurai sword enters St Andrews Catholic Church in Thornton Heath and injures 11
- November 28 - Jorge Batlle for the Colorado Party is elected president of Uruguay
- November 30 - In Seattle, Washington, the first major mobilization of the anti-globalization movement catches police unprepared and forces the cancellation of the opening ceremonies of the WTO Meeting of 1999 (protests end on December 3).

December

December 3
- December 2 - The United Kingdom devolves political power in Northern Ireland to the Northern Ireland Executive.
- December 3 - After rowing for 81 days and 2,962 nautical miles (5486 km), Tori Murden becomes the first woman to cross the Atlantic Ocean by rowboat alone when she reaches Guadeloupe from the Canary Islands
- December 3 - NASA loses radio contact with the Mars Polar Lander moments before the spacecraft enters the Martian atmosphere.
- December 12 - President Lt. General Umar Hasan Ahmad al-Bashir of Sudan dismisses the National Assembly during an internal power struggle between him and speaker of the Parliament Hasan al-Turabi.
- December 14 - Algerian Ahmed Ressam was arrested while crossing the United States-Canada border at Port Angeles, Washington when United States Customs found explosives in the trunk of his automobile. The arrest caused fears of a terrorist attack in the United States and was a major factor in the cancellation of a public New Year's celebration in Seattle. Ressam was later convicted in a plot to bomb Los Angeles International Airport on New Year's Eve.
- December 17 - Iraq disarmament crisis: The United Nations Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission (Unmovic) is created to replace UNSCOM. The U.N. Security council once again orders Iraq to allow inspections teams immediate and unconditional access to any weapons sites and facilities. Iraq rejects the resolution.
- December 20 - Macau is handed over to the People's Republic of China by Portugal.
- December 21 and December 22 - The Spanish Civil Guard intercepts near Calatayud (Zaragoza) a Madrid-bound van driven by ETA and loaded with 950 kg of explosives. The next day, another van loaded with 750 kg is found not far from there. The incident is known as "la caravana de la muerte" (the caravan of death). Shortly after 9/11, ETA confirmed their plan had been to blow down Torre Picasso.
- December 24 - Indian Airlines Flight 814, which was en route from Kathmandu, Nepal to Delhi, India was hijacked and taken to Kandahar, Afghanistan
- December 29 - Former Beatle George Harrison is stabbed several times in the chest by Michael Anram, who had broken into his home. Harrison's wife wrestles the knife out the assailant's hand before the police arrives. The man apparently believed that Harrison was the devil. He was later charged with attempted murder
- December 31 - Boris Yeltsin resigns as President of Russia, to be replaced by Vladimir Putin
- December 31 - Five hijackers, who had been holding 155 hostages on an Indian Airlines plane, leave the plane with two Islamic clerics that they had demanded be freed.
- December 31 - Start Of Millennium celebrations and countdown.
- December 31 - HM Queen Elizabeth II opens the Millennium Dome at Greenwich, London.
- December 31 - The Panama Canal is transferred to Panamanian control.

Unknown date

- Honda Insight is the first hybrid-fuel automobile imported into the United States.
- Naruto (manga) is created by Masashi Kishimoto.

Births

- February 3 - Brett & Jon Wirta, American actors
- April 7 - Conner Rayburn, American actor

Deaths

January-April

- January 14 - Jerzy Grotowski, Polish theatre director (b. 1933)
- January 25 - Robert Shaw, American conductor (b. 1916)
- January 31 - Norm Zauchin, baseball player (b. 1929)
- February 1 - Paul Mellon, American philanthropist (b. 1907)
- February 5 - Wassily Leontief, Russian economist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1906)
- February 7 - King Hussein of Jordan (b. 1935)
- February 8 - Iris Murdoch, Anglo-Irish author (b. 1919)
- February 15 - Henry Way Kendall, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1926)
- February 18 - Noam Pitlik, American actor and director (b. 1932)
- February 20 - Sarah Kane, English playwright (b. 1971)
- February 20 - Gene Siskel, American film critic (b. 1946)
- February 21 - Gertrude B. Elion, American scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1918)
- February 22 - William Bronk, American poet (b. 1918)
- February 25 - Glenn Seaborg, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1912)
- March 2 - Dusty Springfield, English singer, (b. 1939)
- March 3 - Gerhard Herzberg, German-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1904)
- March 4 - Harry Blackmun, American judge (b. 1908)
- March 5 - Richard Kiley, American actor (b. 1922)
- March 7 - Sidney Gottlieb, American Central Intelligence Agency official (b. 1918)
- March 7 - Stanley Kubrick, American film director and producer (b. 1928)
- March 8 - Joe DiMaggio, baseball player (b. 1914)
- March 12 - Yehudi Menuhin, American-born violinist (b. 1916)
- March 18 - Adolfo Bioy Casares, Argentinian writer (b. 1914)
- March 20 - David Strickland, American actor (suicide) (b. 1969)
- March 24 - Birdie Tebbetts, baseball player and manager (b. 1912)
- March 29 - Joe Williams, American jazz singer (b. 1918)
- March 31 - Yuri Knorosov, Russian linguist and epigrapher (b. 1922)
- April 20 - Richard Rood, American professional wrestler (b. 1958)
- April 25 - Lord Killanin, Irish journalist and president of the International Olympic Committee (b. 1914)
- April 25 - Herman Miller, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1919)
- April 26 - Jill Dando, British journalist and TV presenter
- April 28 - Arthur Leonard Schawlow, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1921)

May-August

- May 2 - Oliver Reed, English actor (b. 1938)
- May 3 - Steve Chiasson, Canadi

1904

1904 (MCMIV) is a leap year starting on a Friday (link will take you to calendar).

Events

January-March

- January 7 - The distress signal CQD is established only to be replaced two years later by SOS.
- February 7 - The Great Baltimore Fire in Baltimore, Maryland destroys over 1,500 buildings in 30 hours.
- February 8 - Japanese surprise attack on Port Arthur (Lushun) starts Russo-Japanese War
- February 10 – Roger Casement publishes his account of Belgian atrocities in Congo
- February 23 - For $10 million the United States gains control of the Panama Canal Zone.
- March 3 - Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany becomes the first person to make a political recording of a document, using Thomas Edison's cylinder.
- March 4 - Russo-Japanese War: Russian troops in Korea retreat toward Manchuria followed by 100,000 Japanese troops.
- March 8 – The first tunnel beneath the Hudson River completed
- March 21 – Battle of Chumik Shenko – British under general Francis Younghusband defeat ill-equipped Tibetan troops.

April-June

- April 8 - Entente Cordiale signed between the UK and France.
- April 8 - Longacre Square in Midtown Manhattan is renamed Times Square after The New York Times.
- April 8, April 9, and April 10 - Aleister Crowley receives The Book of the Law in Cairo, Egypt.
- April 18 – Hurricane in Goliad, Texas kills 114.
- April 27 - The Australian Labor Party becomes the first such party to gain national government, under Chris Watson.
- April 30 - Louisiana Purchase Exposition World's Fair opens in Saint Louis, Missouri (closes December 1)
- May 4 - First Rolls-Royce manufactured
- May 5 - Pitching against the Philadelphia Athletics at the Huntington Avenue Grounds, Cy Young of the Boston Americans threw the first perfect game in the modern era of baseball.
- May 18 - in Paris, 12 nations sign the International Agreement for the Suppression of the White Slave Trade
- June 15 - A fire aboard the steamboat General Slocum in New York City's East River kills 1000.
- June 16 - Eugen Schauman assassinates Nikolai Bobrikov, Governor-General of Finland.
- June 16 - Leopold Bloom walks through Dublin (First Bloomsday).

July-December

- July 21 - Trans-Siberian railway completed
- July 23 - In St. Louis, Missouri, Charles E. Menches invents the ice cream cone during the Louisiana Purchase Exposition.
- August 3 - A British expedition under colonel Francis Younghusband takes Lhasa in Tibet
- August 17 – Japanese infantry charge fails to take Port Arthur.
- August 18 - Chris Watson resigns as Prime Minister of Australia and is succeeded by George Reid.
- September 7 - Fire spreads over downtown Baltimore in USA - 1500 buildings destroyed, no known fatalities.
- September 7 - Dalai Lama signs the Anglo-Tibetan Treaty with colonel Francis Younghusband
- October 21 - Russian Baltic Fleet fires on British trawlers it mistakes for Japanese torpedo boats in the North Sea, in what would be known as the Dogger Bank incident.
- October 27 - The first underground line of the New York City Subway opens (IRT); the system is now the largest in the United States, and one of the largest in the world.
- November 4 - In Florence, Italy, the Arno River floods.
- November 8 - Theodore Roosevelt defeats Alton B. Parker in the U.S. presidential election
- November 24 - The first successful caterpillar track is made (it would later revolutionize construction vehicles and land warfare).
- December 2 - St. Petersburg Soviet urges run on the banks. Attempt fails and the executive committee is arrested
- December 27 - The stage play Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up premiered in London
- December 31 - The first New Year's Eve celebration is held in Times Square, then known as Longacre Square, in New York, New York.

Unknown dates

- Ismael Montes becomes president of Bolivia.
- Herero Wars begin.
- The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints President Joseph F. Smith issues a "Second Manifesto" against polygamy.
- 1904-1905 Welsh Revival- Christian revival breaks out in Wales.
- Subject of alcohol and heart attacks first investigated.

Births

January-February

- January 1 - Fazal Ilahi Chaudhry, Pakistani politician (d. 1982)
- January 3 - Jeane Dixon, American astrologer (d. 1997)
- January 10 - Ray Bolger, American actor, singer, and dancer (d. 1987)
- January 14 - Cecil Beaton, English photographer (d. 1980)
- January 18 - Cary Grant, English actor (d. 1986)
- January 22 - George Balanchine, Russian-born choreographer (d. 1983)
- January 22 - Arkady Gaidar, Russian children's writer (d. 1941)
- January 26 - Ancel Keys, American scientist (d, 2004)
- January 26 - Seán MacBride, Irish statesman, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1988)
- January 29 - Arnold Gehlen, German philosopher (d. 1976)
- January 29 - Luigi Nono, Italian composer (d. 1990)
- February 1 - S. J. Perelman, American humorist and author (d. 1979)
- February 3 - Luigi Dallapiccola, Italian composer (d. 1975)
- February 3 - Pretty Boy Floyd, American gangster (d. 1934)
- February 4 - MacKinlay Kantor, American writer and historian (d. 1977)
- February 11 - Sir Keith Holyoake, Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1983)
- February 16 - George F. Kennan, American diplomat (d. 2005)
- February 20 - Aleksei Kosygin, Premier of the Soviet Union (d. 1980)
- February 29 - Jimmy Dorsey, American bandleader (d. 1957)

March-April

- March 1 - Glenn Miller, American bandleader (d. 1944)
- March 2 - Dr. Seuss, American author (d. 1991)
- March 4 - George Gamow, Ukrainian-born physicist (d. 1968)
- March 6 - Joseph Schmidt, Austrian tenor (d. 1942)
- March 7 - Reinhard Heydrich, Nazi official (d. 1942)
- March 20 - B. F. Skinner, American behavioral psychologist (d. 1990)
- March 26 - Joseph Campbell, American author on mythology (d. 1987)
- March 26 - Xenophon Zolotas, Prime Minister of Greece (d. 2004)
- April 3 - Sally Rand, American dancer and actress (d. 1979)
- April 7 - Ralph Bunche, American diplomat, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1971)
- April 8 - John Hicks, English economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1989)
- April 9 - Sharkey Bonano, American jazz musician (d. 1972)
- April 14 - Sir John Gielgud, English actor (d. 2000)
- April 16 - Fifi D'Orsay, Canadian actress (d. 1983)
- April 22 - Robert Oppenheimer, American physicist (d. 1967)
- April 24 - Willem de Kooning, Dutch artist (d. 1997)
- April 26 - Jimmy McGrory, Scottish footballer (d. 1982)
- April 27 - Cecil Day-Lewis, English poet (d. 1972)

May-July

- May 6 - Moshe Feldenkrais, Ukrainian-born engineer (d. 1984)
- May 6 - Harry Martinson, Swedish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1978)
- May 11 - Salvador Dalí, Spanish artist (d. 1989)
- May 17 - Jean Gabin, French actor (d. 1976)
- May 21 - Fats Waller, American pianist and comedian (d. 1943)
- May 21 - Robert Montgomery, American actor and director (d. 1981)
- May 27 - Chuhei Nambu, Japanese athlete (d. 1997)
- June 2 - Frantisek Planicka, Czech footballer (d. 1996)
- June 2 - Johnny Weissmuller, American swimmer and actor (d. 1984)
- June 3 - Jan Peerce, American tenor (d. 1984)
- June 26 - Peter Lorre, Austria-Hugarian-born film actor (d. 1964)
- July 5 - Ernst Mayr, German-born biologist and author (d. 2005)
- July 12 - Pablo Neruda, Chilean poet, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1973)
- July 17 - Tsarevich Alexei of Russia (d. 1918)
- July 28 - Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov, Russian physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1990)
- July 31 - Brett Halliday, American writer (d. 1977)

August-December

- August 4 - Witold Gombrowicz, Polish novelist and dramatist (d. 1969)
- August 7 - Ralph Bunche, American diplomat, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1971)
- August 16 - Wendell Meredith Stanley, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971)
- August 17 - Leopold Nowak, Austrian musicologist (d. 1991)
- August 21 - Count Basie, American musician and bandleader (d. 1984)
- August 22 - Deng Xiaoping, de facto Chinese leader (d. 1997)
- August 23 - Thelma Morgan, Viscountess Furness, American socialite twin (d. 1970)
- August 23 - Gloria Morgan-Vanderbilt, American socialite twin (d. 1965)
- August 28 - Secondo Campini, Italian jet pioneer (d. 1980)
- August 29 - Werner Forssmann, German physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1979)
- September 9 - Feroze Khan, Pakistani field hockey player (d. 2005)
- September 22 - Joseph Valachi, gangster (d. 1971)
- September 29 - Greer Garson, English actress (d. 1996)
- October 1 - A.K. Gopalan, Indian communist leader (d. 1977)
- October 3 - Charles J. Pedersen, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1989)
- October 23 - Harvey Penick, American golfer (d. 1995)
- October 25 - Vladimir Peter Tytla, American animator (d. 1968)
- November 2 - Louis Eugène Félix Néel, French physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2000)
- November 11 - J. H. C. Whitehead, British mathematician (d. 1960)
- November 12 - Jacques Tourneur, French director (d. 1977)
- November 14 - Dick Powell, American actor and singer (d. 1963)
- November 14 - Michael Ramsey, Archbishop of Canterbury (d. 1988)
- November 25 - Lillian Copeland, American athlete (d. 1964)
- November 30 - Clyfford Still, American painter (d. 1980)
- December 12 - Baron Nicolas de Gunzburg, magazine editor, socialite (d. 1981)
- December 18 - George Stevens, American film director (d. 1975)
- December 25 - Gerhard Herzberg, German-born chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999)
- December 26 - Alejo Carpentier, Cuban writer (d. 1980)
- December 30 - Dmitri Borisovich Kabalevsky, Russian composer (d. 1987)

Unknown dates

- Gustave Biéler, Swiss-born hero of World War II (executed) (d. 1944)
- Bernard Castro, Italian inventor (d. 1991)
- J. J. Gibson, Gay psychologist (d. 1979)

Deaths

- January 2 - James Longstreet, American Confederate general (b. 1821)
- January 20 - Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev, Russian chemist (b. 1834)
- March 5 - John Lowther du Plat Taylor, British founder of the Army Post Office Corps (b. 1829)
- May 1 - Antonin Dvorak, Czech composer (b. 1841)
- May 19 - Auguste Molinier, French historian (b. 1851)
- June 4 - George Frederick Phillips, Canadian-born military hero (b. 1862)
- July 3 - Theodor Herzl, Austrian founder of Zionism (b. 1860)
- July 5 - Abai Kunanbaiuli, Kazakh poet (b. 1845)
- July 14 - Anton Chekhov, Russian writer (b. 1860)
- July 14 - Paul Kruger, South African resistance leader (b. 1825)
- July 22 - Wilson Barrett, English actor (b. 1846)
- August 6 - Eduard Hanslick, Austrian music critic (b. 1825)
- August 22 - Kate Chopin, American author (b. 1851)
- August 25 - Henri Fantin-Latour, French painter (b. 1836)
- August 29 - Murad V, Ottoman Sultan (b. 1840)
- September 25 - Niels Ryberg Finsen, Danish physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1860)
- September 26 - John F. Stairs, Canadian businessman and statesman (b. 1848)
- October 4 - Frédéric Bartholdi, Alsatian sculptor (b. 1834)

Nobel Prizes

- Physics - The Lord Rayleigh
- Chemistry - Sir William Ramsay
- Physiology or Medicine - Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
- Literature - Frédéric Mistral, José Echegaray Y Eizaguirre
- Peace - Institut De Droit International Category:1904 ko:1904년 ms:1904 ja:1904年 simple:1904 th:พ.ศ. 2447

Henry George

Henry George (September 2, 1839 – October 29, 1897) was an American political economist, and the most influential proponent of the "Single Tax" on land. He is the author of "Progress and Poverty" written in 1879.

His life

Born in Philadelphia, George went to sea at age 16 before eventually settling in California. After a failed attempt at gold mining he started to work his way up through the newspaper industry, starting as a printer and ending up an editor and proprietor. Some of his earliest articles to gain him fame were on his opinion that Chinese immigration should be [http://www.econlib.org/library/YPDBooks/Lalor/llCy213.html restricted]. On a trip to New York George was struck by the apparent paradox that the poor in that long-established city were much worse off than the poor in less developed California. This paradox supplied the theme and title for his 1879 book Progress and Poverty, which was a huge success, selling over 3 million copies. In it George made the argument that nearly all of the wealth created by social and technological advances in a free market economy is captured by land owners and monopolists via economic rents, and that this concentration of unearned wealth is the root cause of poverty. George considered it a great injustice to restrict a man from using natural resources, and believed such restrictions were equivalent to slavery, a concept known as wage slavery. The appropriation of oil royalties by magnates of petrol-rich countries may be seen as an equivalent form of rent-seeking activity; since natural resources are given freely by Nature, no single individual should be allowed to earn revenues by monopolizing their commerce. The same holds true about every other mineral and biological raw resource. George was in a position to discover this pattern, having experienced poverty himself, knowing many different societies from his travels, and living in California at a time of rapid growth. In particular he had noticed that the construction of railroads in California was pushing up land values and rents as fast or faster than wages were rising.

His economic theory

George developed some of the crucial features of his own theory of economics in a critique of an illustration used by Frédéric Bastiat in order to explain the nature of interest and profit. Bastiat had asked his readers to consider James and William, both carpenters. James has built himself a plane, and has lent it to William for a year. Would James be satisfied with the return of an equally good plane a year later? Plainly not! He'd expect a board along with it, as interest. The key to a theory of interest is to understand why. Bastiat said that James had given William over that year "the power, inherent in the instrument, to increase the productivity of his labor," and wants compensation for that increased productivity. George didn't accept this explanation. He wrote, "I am inclined to think that if all wealth consisted of such things as planes, and all production was such as that of carpenters -- that is to say, if wealth consisted but of the inert matter of the universe, and production of working up this inert matter into different shapes, that interest would be but the robbery of industry, and could not long exist." But some wealth is inherently fruitful, like a pair of breeding cattle, or a vat of grape juice soon to ferment into wine, or ... land. Planes and other sorts of inert matter (and the most lent item of all -- money itself) earns interest indirectly, only by being part of the same social "circle of exchange" with fruitful forms of wealth such as those.

His policy proposals

Although best known for advocating the replacement of other taxes by land taxes, Henry George formulated a comprehensive set of economic policies. Much like the modern Open Source movement, George was highly critical of restrictive patents and copyrights. George advocated replacement of patents with government supported incentives for invention and scientific investigation and dismantling of monopolies when possible – and taxation or regulation of natural monopolies. George advocated a combination of unfettered free markets and extensive social programs made possible by taxes on land and monopolies. Modern day economists like Nobel Prize winner Milton Friedman admit that Henry George's Land tax is potentially beneficial because, unlike other taxes, land taxes tend not to affect the prices of consumer products. Modern day environmentalists have resonated with the idea of the earth as the common property of humanity – and some have endorsed the idea of substantial taxes or fees on pollution. Others, notably U.S. economist Nicolaus Tideman and U.S. activist Alanna Hartzok, continue to promote the essential Georgist idea of land value taxation.

Death and subsequent influence

In 1886 George ran for mayor of New York, and polled second (ahead of Theodore Roosevelt). He ran again in 1897, but died 4 days before the election. An estimated 100,000 people attended his funeral. According to his grand-daughter Agnes de Mille, Progress and Poverty and its successors made Henry George the third most famous man in the USA, behind only Mark Twain and Thomas Edison. [http://www.schalkenbach.org/library/demillebio.html] He was also popular as a speaker, even making several speaking trips abroad to places such as Ireland and Scotland where access to land was (and still is) a major political issue. His ideas were taken up to some degree in South Africa, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Australia – where state governments still levy a land value tax, albeit low and with many exemptions. An attempt by the Liberal Government of the day to implement his ideas in 1909 as part of the People's Budget caused a crisis in Britain which led indirectly to reform of the House of Lords. Henry George was familiar with the work of Karl Marx – and predicted that if Marx's ideas were tried the likely result would be a dictatorship. Henry George's popularity declined in the 20th century; however, there are still many Georgist organisations in existence, and many people who do remain famous were heavily influenced by him, such as George Bernard Shaw, Leo Tolstoy, Sun Yat Sen, Herbert Simon [http://www.nobel.se/economics/laureates/1978/simon-autobio.html], and David Lloyd George. A follower of George, Lizzie Magie, created the board game Monopoly in 1904 to demonstrate his theories. Notable is also Silvio Gesells Freiwirtschaft, in which Gesell combined Henry George's ideas about land ownership and rents with his own theory about the money system and interest rates and his successive development of Freigeld. In his last book, Martin Luther King referenced Henry George in support of a guaranteed minimum income.[http://www.progress.org/dividend/cdking.html] In the 2004 Presidential campaign, Ralph Nader mentioned Henry George in his platform.[http://www.votenader.org/issues/index.php?cid=7] Congressman Dennis Kucinich has also positively mentioned Henry George in speeches. [http://www.monetary.org]

A critique

George's writings have drawn their share of critiques. Austrian school economist Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, for example, expressed a negative judgment on George's discussion of the carpenter's plane: :In the first place, it is impossible to support his distinction of the branches of production into two classes, in one of which the vital forces of nature are supposed to constitute a special element which functions side by side with labour, and in the other of which this is not true. [...] The natural sciences have long since proved to us that the cooperation of nature is universal. [...] The muscular movements of the person using the plane would be of little use, if they did not have the assistance of the natural forces and properties of the plane iron.

Bibliography

- Progress and Poverty 1879
- [http://www.schalkenbach.org/library/george.henry/spcont.html Social Problems] 1883
- The Land Question 1884
- [http://www.mises.org/studyguide.aspx?action=author&Id=169 Protection or Free Trade] 1886
- A Perplexed Philosopher 1892
- [http://www.henrygeorge.org/science/speindex.html The Science of Political Economy] 1898

External links

- [http://www.henrygeorge.org/ The Henry George Institute]
- [http://www.schalkenbach.org/library/george.henry/ Online Works of Henry George]
- [http://www.schalkenbach.org/library/george.henry/pp083.html Criticism of copyrights and patents]
- [http://www.schalkenbach.org/library/george.henry/pp094.html Incentives for invention]
- [http://www.schalkenbach.org/library/george.henry/pp034.html Breaking up monopolies]
- [http://www.geoistforum.com/ Geoist Forum]
- [http://www.earthrights.net Earth Rights Institute] George, Henry George, Henry George, Henry George, Henry George, Henry George, Henry

Elizabeth Magie

Elizabeth "Lizzie" J. Magie, a Quaker from Virginia who was a follower of the economist Henry George, was the patentor of a board game that was the precursor to Monopoly. On March 23 1903, Magie applied to the US Patent Office for a patent on her board game, which was designed to demonstrate the evils of land monopolism. She was granted on January 5 1904. She sold her rights to the game for $500 in 1936 to Parker Brothers, with the understanding that they would promote the game, although they instead suppressed it in favor of Monopoly.

External link

- [http://www.adena.com/adena/mo/mo13.htm The story of Lizzie Magie and Parker Brothers] Magie, Elizabeth Magie, Elizabeth Magie, Elizabeth

The Landlord's Game

.]] The Landlord's Game is a board game patented by Quaker Elizabeth Magie from Virginia. It is a realty and taxation game, the first of its kind to have an attested patent. It was patented by Magie in 1904. Many similar home-made games were played by people at the beginning of the 20th Century, even before The Landlord's Game was patented. One of those home-made games about owning property and taxing, which also got patented, was Monopoly, a game by Pennsylvanian former salesman Charles Darrow, who later sold the rights to manufacture the Monopoly game to the company Parker Brothers of Massachusetts. Landlord's Game, The

1910

1910 (MCMX) was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar).

Events

January-April

- January - In Greece, the Military League forces parliament and George I of Greece to summon National Assembly to revise Constitution.
- January 15 - In the United Kingdom, General Election held in response to House of Lords rejection of the (1909) budget results in reduced Liberal Party majority (Liberals, 275 seats; Labour, 40; Irish Nationalists, 82; Unionists (the title then preferred by the British Conservative Party), 273).
- January 16 - Constant rains in Paris, France cause the Seine to overflow its banks, flooding the city. All but one line of the Paris Métro become filled with water, effectively draining water from the city.
- February 20 - Boutros Ghali, first native born prime minister of Egypt, assassinated.
- March - Uprising against Ottoman rule breaks out in Albania.
- March 19 - In America, Republicans reduce the powers of the Speaker of the House of Representatives to influence Committee membership.
- April - Albanian revolt suppressed by Turkish army.
- April 27 - Louis Botha and James Hertzog (James Barry Munnik Hertzog) found South Africa Party.
- April 27 - British House of Commons passes David Lloyd George's (1909) 'People's Budget' for second time; passed by House of Lords, 28 April
- April 29 - Andrew Fisher becomes Prime Minister of Australia for the second time.

May-July

- May 6 - George V becomes King of the United Kingdom upon the death of his father, Edward VII.
- May 11 - U.S. Congress establishes Glacier National Park in Montana.
- May 16 - The U.S. Congress authorizes the creation of the United States Bureau of Mines.
- May 18 - The earth passes through the tail of Comet Halley.
- May 31 - creation of the Union of South Africa.
- June - Edinburgh Missionary Conference is held in Scotland, presided over by Nobel Peace Prize recipient John R. Mott, launching the modern ecumenical movement and the modern missions movement.
- June 22 - First flight of Zeppelin airship.
- July 2 - Demonstrations in France against public executions.
- July 4 - African-American boxer Jack Johnson knocks out white boxer James J. Jeffries in a heavyweight boxing match sparking race riots across the United States.
- July 24 - James MacGillivray publishes first account of Paul Bunyan in the Detroit News.

August-October

- August 14 - fire at World Exhibition in Brussels destroys exhibitions of Britain and France.
- August 22 - Japan annexes Korea.
- August 28 - Montenegro is proclaimed an independent kingdom under Nicholas I.
- September 1 - the Vatican introduces a compulsory oath against modernism, to be taken by all priests upon ordination.
- September 16 - Australian Treasury given power to issue currency
- October 1 - bomb explodes on the Los Angeles Times building - 21 dead, several injured. James B. McNamara and Joseph J. McNamara later arrested and sentenced.
- October 5 - Portugal becomes a republic. King Manuel II of Portugal flees to England.
- October 10 - Tau Epsilon Phi Fraternity is established at Columbia University.
- October 18 - Eleutherios Venizelos becomes prime minister of Greece.

November-December

- November 7 - First air flight for the purpose of delivering commercial freight occurs between Dayton, Ohio and Columbus, Ohio by the Wright Brothers and department store owner Max Moorehouse.
- November 20 - Mexican Revolution: Francisco I. Madero denounces President Porfirio Díaz, declares himself president, and calls for a revolution to overthrow the government of Mexico.
- November 23 - Last execution in Sweden (by guillotine) - murderer Johan Ander
- December - British Prime Minister Asquith makes second appeal in the same year to the electorate to resolve battle of wills with the House of Lords (Liberals, 272; Labour, 42; Irish Nationalists, 84; Unionists, 272 - making a majority of 126 for restriction of the powers of the Lords and for Irish Home Rule).
- December 12 - New York socialite Dorothy Arnold disappears. Her family does not notify the police until six weeks later, after their own investigations have come to nothing
- December 16 - Henri Coanda makes first short flight in a plane with a jet engine.
- December 16 - In Houndsditch, London, four (Latvian) anarchists shoot three policemen in botched raid on a jewellers - three are arrested, other members of the gang escape but are later (January 1911) cornered in the 'siege of Sidney Street'.

Unknown dates

Births

January-April

- January 5 - Jack Lovelock, New Zealand athlete (d. 1949)
- January 7 - Orval Faubus, Governor of Arkansas (d. 1994)
- January 8 - Galina Sergeyevna Ulanova, Russian dancer (d. 1998)
- January 12 - Luise Rainer, German-born actress
- January 16 - Dizzy Dean, baseball player (d. 1974)
- January 23 - Django Reinhardt, Belgian guitarist (d. 1953)
- January 30 - C Subramaniam, Indian politician ( d. 2000)
- February 5 - Francisco Varallo, Argentine footballer
- February 6 - Irmgard Keun, German author (d. 1982)
- February 9 - Jacques Monod, French biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1976)
- February 10 - Georges Pire, Belgian monk, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1969)
- February 13 - William Shockley, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1989)
- February 27 - Joan Bennett, American actress (d. 1990)
- March 1 - Archer John Porter Martin, English chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2002)
- March 1 - David Niven, English actor (d. 1983)
- March 9 - Samuel Barber, American composer (d. 1981)
- March 11 - Robert Havemann, German chemist (d. 1982)
- March 13 - Karl Gustav Ahlefeldt, Danish actor (d. 1985)
- March 23 - Akira Kurosawa, Japanese screenwriter, producer, and director (d. 1998)
- March 28 - Frederick Baldwin Adams, Jr. Bibliophile and director of the Pierpont Morgan Library (d. 2001)
- April 10 - Ivan Goff, Australian screenwriter (d. 1999)
- April 10 - Paul Sweezy, American economist and editor (d. 2004)
- April 23 - Simone Simon, French actress (d. 2005)

May-August

- May 12 - Charles B. Fulton, American jurist (d. 1996)
- May 12 - Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin, British chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1994)
- May 22 - Johnny Olson, American game show announcer (d. 1985)
- May 23 - Scatman Crothers, American actor and musician (d. 1986)
- May 23 - Artie Shaw, American clarinetist and bandleader (d. 2004)
- May 28 - T-Bone Walker, American blues singer (d. 1976)
- May 30 - Ralph Metcalfe, American athlete (d. 1978)
- May 30 - Inge Meysel, German actress (d. 2004)
- June 8 - Fernand Fonssagrives, French photographer (d. 2003)
- June 12 - Bill Naughton, British playwright (d. 1992)
- June 14 - Rudolf Kempe, German conductor (d. 1976)
- June 18 - E.G. Marshall, American actor (d. 1998)
- June 19 - Paul Flory, American chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1985)
- June 22 - Peter Pears, English tenor (d. 1986)
- June 23 - Jean Anouilh, French dramatist (d. 1987)
- June 23 - Peaches Browning, American actress (d. 1956)
- June 23 - Gordon B. Hinckley, president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
- July 4 - Gloria Stuart, American actress
- July 11 - Irene Hervey, American actress (d. 1998)
- July 14 - Vincent Brome, English biographer and novelist (d. 2004)
- July 14 - William Hanna, American animator (d. 2001)
- July 30 - Edgar de Evia, American photographer (d. 2003)
- August 14 - Pierre Schaeffer, French composer (d. 1995)
- August 27 - Mother Teresa, Albanian nun and humanitarian, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1997)
- August 28 - Tjalling Koopmans, Dutch economist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1985)

September-December

- September 16 - Karl Kling, German race car driver (d. 2003)
- September 23 - Elliott Roosevelt, American author and World War II hero (d. 1990)
- October 8 - Ray Lewis, Canadian runner (d. 2003)
- October 14 - John Wooden, American basketball coach
- October 19 - Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, Indian-born physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1995)
- October 27 - Jack Carson, Canadian actor (d. 1963)
- November 14 - Eric Malpass, English novelist (d. 1996)
- December 1 - Alicia Markova, English ballerina (d. 2004)
- December 11- [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hari_Singh%2C_Inspector_General_of_Forests_of_India Hari Singh] , Inspector General of Forests of India (d. 2003)
- December 15 - John Hammond, American record producer (d. 1987)
- December 19 - Jean Genet, French writer (d. 1986)
- December 29 - Frank Abbandando, American gangster (d. 1942)
- December 29 - Michel Aflaq, Syrian political theorist, founder of Ba'athism (d. 1989)
- December 29 - Ronald Coase, British economicst, Nobel Prize laureate
- December 29 - Konsta Jylhä, Finnish violinist (d. 1984)
- December 30 - Paul Bowles, American author (d. 1999)

Deaths

- January 27 - Thomas Crapper, English inventor (b. 1836)
- March 26 - An Jung-geun, assassin of Japanese politician Ito Hirobumi (executed) (b. 1879)
- April 21 - Mark Twain, American novelist (b. 1835)
- April 26 - Bjørnstjerne Bjørnson, Norwegian writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1832)
- May 6 - King Edward VII of the United Kingdom (b. 1841)
- May 18 - Pauline Garcia-Viardot, French mezzo-soprano and composer (b. 1821)
- May 27 - Robert Koch, German physician, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1843)
- May 29 - Mily Balakirev, Russian composer (b. 1837)
- May 31 - Elizabeth Blackwell, first female physician in the United States (b. 1821)
- July 4 - Giovanni Schiaparelli, Italian astronomer (b. 1835)
- July 12 - Charles Stewart Rolls, British aviator and automobile manufacturer (b. 1877)
- July 19 - Johann Gottfried Galle, German astronomer (b. 1812)
- August 13 - Florence Nightingale, English nurse (b. 1820)
- September 2 - Henri Rousseau, French painter (b. 1844)
- October 15 - Stanley Ketchel, American boxer (murdered) (b. 1886)
- October 23 - Chulalongkorn, King of Siam (b. 1853)
- October 30 - Jean Henri Dunant, Swiss founder of the Red Cross, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (b. 1828)
- November 6 - Giuseppe Cesare Abba, Italian patriot and writer (b. 1838)
- November 15 - Wilhelm Raabe, German writer (b. 1831)
- November 20 (N.S.) - Leo Tolstoy, Russian writer (b. 1828)

Nobel Prizes

- Chemistry - Otto Wallach
- Literature - Paul Heyse
- Medicine - Albrecht Kossel
- Peace - Permanent International Peace Bureau
- Physics - Johannes Diderik van der Waals
- ko:1910년 ms:1910 ja:1910年 simple:1910 th:พ.ศ. 2453

Religious Society of Friends

The Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as Quakers or Friends, is a religious community who do not have a universal set of doctrines to which all members subscribe but who embrace certain concepts that have been adopted by consensus. The most central concept of all is the Inner Light. Friends believe that the Inner Light is a guiding force within each person. This belief has been understood in several different ways but always accepted by various branches within the Society. Belief in the Inner Light has led to the development of several key concepts that are referred to as Testimonies. The Testimonies involve a commitment to such issues as peace, equality between the sexes and among the races, living simply, and maintaining personal integrity. They are explained in more detail in a subsequent section below and in separate articles. The Religious Society of Friends was founded in England in the 17th century. Quakers are counted among the historic peace churches, and have congregations scattered across the world. Since its origin in England, Quakerism has spread to other countries, chiefly the United States, Kenya and Bolivia. The number of Quakers in the world is relatively small (approximately 600,000), although there are places, such as Philadelphia & Pennsylvania in the United States, in which Quaker influence is concentrated. Although Quakers are historically Christian, there are many who consider themselves atheist, universalist or who do not accept any religious label.

Basic divisions and organization

Like many movements, the Religious Society of Friends has evolved, changed, and split into various smaller subgroups. It is difficult to describe the Religious Society of Friends without making numerous qualifications and listing exceptions. In order to understand other aspects of the Religious Society of Friends, it is helpful to understand the basic divisions and organization.

In Great Britain

In Britain there has been a high level of organizational unity throughout the history of the Society. The local Friends meetings there are called preparative meetings. Several local meetings are part of a Monthly meeting. Several monthly meetings are organized into a general meeting. Formerly, general meetings were called quarterly meetings, and, while they continue to meet up to three times per year, they usually play no direct role in Quaker structures. Monthly meetings are represented directly in Meeting for Sufferings, which meets in between Yearly meetings. (For further information, see [http://www.quaker.org.uk/qfp/index.html Quaker Faith and Practice], published by yearly meeting]]. In programmed traditions, the local congregations are often referred to as "Friends Churches". They usually have a paid pastor. Their services are planned ahead of time and include hymns, prayers, and sermons by the pastor. They resemble Protestant churches, but many retain aspects of unprogrammed worship, including periods of silence. The programmed tradition also has attracted a form of Evangelical Christianity within it. Although "programmed Quakerism" has become more akin to mainline Protestantism, many Quakers consider their faith neither [[Protestant nor Catholic, but rather an expression of a third way to experience Christianity. There is a wide range of beliefs among Quakers and discovering what it truly means to be Quaker means struggling with these different viewpoints in the Meeting and the viewpoints held by the larger Quaker community. There are also semi-programmed Friends Meetings, in which there is some planning of the service and some silent waiting on the Spirit.

Names

Christianity Various names have been used for the Friends movement and its adherents. These include:
- Seekers
- Saints
- Children of the light
- Friends of the Truth
- Quakers
- Religious Society of Friends
- Society of Friends In the first few years of the movement, Quakers thought of themselves as the restoration (or at least part of it) of the true Christian church after centuries of apostasy. For this reason, during this period they often referred to themselves as simply the "saints" or the "children of light". Another common name was "Friends of the Truth", reflecting the central importance in early Quaker theology of Christ as an Inner light that shows you your true condition. The name "Quaker" was first used in 1650, when preacher George Fox was brought before Justice Bennet of Derby on a charge of blasphemy. According to Fox's journal, Bennet "called us Quakers because we bid them tremble at the word of God." (Here Fox would have meant Christ by "word of God"; see Beliefs and practices of Friends.) Indeed, early Friends did tremble and shake at their meetings, and spent many pamphlets defending "quaking" as a biblical phenomenon. Some Friends (including Fox) disliked the name, but it began to stick nonetheless. There was apparently an attempt after a 1654 meeting in Leicestershire to become known as the "children of light", but this was not successful. The name "Religious Society of Friends" came many years later, in the 18th century. This remains the official name to this day, although often "Quakers" is added in parentheses for the sake of clarity. Also, there are some Friends, usually in unprogrammed meetings, who object to the word "religious" and refer to themselves as part of the "Society of Friends". There are some monthly meetings that for this reason do not include "religious" in their name, while most larger Quaker organizations, such as yearly meetings, use the full name.

History

yearly meetings The Quakers began in England in the early 1650s as a Nonconformist breakaway movement from Anglicanism. Traditionally George Fox has been taken to be the founder or at least the most important early figure. As the movement expanded, it faced opposition and persecution. Quakers were imprisoned and beaten in both the British Isles and the British colonies. In the Massachusetts Bay colony, some Quakers (most famously Mary Dyer) were put to death for upholding their beliefs. The state of Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn as a safe place for Quakers to live and practice their faith. Despite persecution, the movement grew steadily into a strong and united society. During the 19th century Friends in Ireland and the United States suffered a number of separations, while Friends in Great Britain generally remained united. Hicksite-Orthodox Split In 1827 Elias Hicks was expelled for expressing universalist views. The next year, a number of Friends in sympathy with him separated to form a parallel system of yearly meetings in America, referred to as Hicksite. The Quakers who did not follow Hicks are called Orthodox. Gurneyite-Wilburite Split The Orthodox Friends in America were exercised by a transatlantic dispute between Joseph John Gurney of England and John Wilbur of Rhode Island. Gurney emphasized scriptural authority and favored working closely with other Christian groups. Wilbur, in response, defended the authority of the Holy Spirit, i.e. the Inner light, as primary and worked to prevent the dilution of Friends tradition of Spirit-led ministry. Wilbur was expelled from his yearly meeting in a questionable proceeding in 1842. Over the next several decades, a number of Wilburite-Gurneyite separations occurred. (See [http://www.snowcamp.org/shocf/ A short history of Conservative Friends] for further information.) Beanites Joel Bean was an Orthodox Friend who opposed the extreme evangelicalism that was creeping into his branch of Quakerism. He formed a new branch of Quakerism in the western part of the United States. The "Beanite" or independent Quakers resemble an amalgam of Hicksite and Wilburite Quakerism, some of them adopting the label "Christ-Centered Universalism".

Beliefs and practices of Friends

Experiencing God

Fox and the other early Quaker preachers believed that direct experience of God was available to all people, without any mediation (e.g. through a pastor, or through sacraments). Fox described this by writing in his journal that "Christ was come to teach his people himself." Friends have often expressed this belief by referring to "that of God in Everyone", "Inner light", "inward Christ", "the spirit of Christ within", and many other terms. Since Friends believe that everyone contains "that of God", much of the Quaker perspective is based on trying to hear what the Inward Guide is saying to us. Isaac Penington put it this way in 1670: "It is not enough to hear of Christ, or read of Christ, but this is the thing - to feel him my root, my life, my foundation..." [http://www.qhpress.org/texts/penington/letter40.html]

Mysticism

Quakerism is often termed a mystical religion, but it differs from other mystical religions in two important ways. First, Quaker mysticism is primarily group-oriented rather than focused on the individual. The unprogrammed Quaker meeting may be considered an expression of that group mysticism, where all the members of the meeting can together listen for the Spirit and, ideally (in what is called a "gathered meeting") the Spirit moves people to speak such that disparate comments are later seen to be part of a larger theme or idea. Second, Quaker mysticism includes a strong emphasis on its outwardly directed activism. Rather than seeking withdrawal from the world, the Quaker mystic translates his or her mysticism into action. Action, in turn, leads to greater spiritual understanding — both by individuals and by the Meeting as a whole. Quakers refer to calls of the Spirit to do some particular act as a Leading. John Woolman is one example of how an individual or group with a Leading — in his case the abolition of slavery — can change individuals, the Society of Friends and the world at large for the better. In the process, the Spirit manifests itself in new ways and informs the mysticism of the Meeting community. Another term used to refer to the Quaker practice of stillness or silent worship -- a component common to both programmed and unprogrammed meetings -- is quietism.

The Bible

Early Friends believed that Christ, not the Bible, was the Word of God; for example, according to Robert Barclay the scriptures "are only a declaration of the fountain, and not the fountain itself, therefore they are not to be esteemed the principal ground of all Truth and knowledge, nor yet the adequate primary rule of faith and manners" (Apology prop. 3). Early Friends did however believe that Christ would never lead them in ways that contradicted the Bible, and so making the Bible subordinate to the spirit led to fewer conflicts than it does today. As time passed, conflicts between what the Bible appeared to teach and how Friends believed they were being led by the Spirit began to arise. Some Friends decided that in these cases the Bible should be authoritative, in effect making explicit early Friends' assumption that the Spirit would never lead contrary to scripture. For example, the Richmond Declaration of 1887 declared, among other things, that any action "contrary to the Scriptures, though under profession of the immediate guidance of the Holy Spirit, must be reckoned and accounted a mere delusion". Today Evangelical Friends believe that the Bible is authoritative and that personal Leadings are not right if they are contradictory to its teachings. Other Friends, partly under the influence of movements such as liberal Protestantism, decided that it was possible to be truly led in ways contrary to scripture, and that in such cases scripture should give way. Still other Friends rejected (or began to neglect) the Christian Bible altogether; hence in many liberal (usually unprogrammed) Friends meetings one will encounter non-Christian Friends. In nearly all cases however, modern Friends believe in the necessity of being continually guided by the inward light. Divine revelation is therefore not restricted to the Bible, but rather continues even today; this doctrine is known as continuing revelation. From this interpretation a common set of beliefs emerged, which became known as testimonies. (See Testimonies for a list and description of them.)

Creeds

Quakerism is a creedless religion. George Fox dismissed theologians as "notionists", and modern Quakerism is less concerned with theology than many other faiths. This lack of focus has resulted in a broad range of theologies from fundamentalist Christian to new-age universalist. Quakerism focuses more on faithfulness in life in the here and now than on ultimate destiny. Friends believe authentic listening to the Spirit cannot be reduced to a formula, and God's revelation continues as history unfolds. A formal creed would be an obstacle - both to authentic listening and to the recognition of new insight.

Sacraments

Early Friends did not believe in performing any special rites or sacraments, believing that holiness can exist in all the activities of one's life—all of life is sacred. Thus they did not perform baptism as a rite of membership, and their method of worship was considered unorthodox and heretical. Friends also believe that any meal with others can be a form of communion.

Plainness

Like many aspects of Quaker life, the practice of plainness has evolved over time, although it is based on principles that have been a lasting part of Quaker thought. These principles are now part of the Testimonies of Simplicity, Equality, and Integrity. Friends have practiced plainness in their dress and outward appearance as well as in their speech. Quakers wore plain clothes in order to address three concerns: the vanity and superiority associated with fanciness, the conformity associated with wearing the latest fashions, and the wastefulness of frequently buying new styles and spending money on adornment. At one time this practice of plainness allowed other people to identify Friends easily. Many people are still familiar with the image of the Quaker man in a gray or brown suit with a flat broad-brimmed hat, and the Quaker woman in a plain dress and bonnet. These specific practices are not followed by most Quakers today; however, the principles behind them are just as important to Quakers as ever, and most Friends apply them to their daily lives in new ways. Plainness in speech addressed other concerns: honesty, class distinction, and vestiges of paganism. These principles were put into practice by affirming rather than swearing oaths, setting fixed prices for goods, using familiar forms for the second person pronoun, avoiding the use of honorific titles, and using numbers rather than names for the days of the week and the months of the year.

Egalitarianism

For more information about Quaker Egalitarianism see Testimony of Equality Early Quakerism included a strong sense of spiritual egalitarianism, including a belief in the spiritual equality of the sexes—remarkable for that time. Both women and men were granted equal authority to speak in meetings for worship. George Fox's wife, Margaret Fell, was as vocal and literate as her husband, publishing several tracts in Quakerism's early days. One trait continued by modern Friends is taking a dim view of titles and ranks. For example, at Earlham College, a Quaker college in Richmond, Indiana, professors and administrators are addressed by their first name by students, without the use of "professor" or "doctor". It is generally accepted in Quaker communities for children to address adults by their first names.

Oaths and fair-dealing

For more information on this topic see Testimony of Integrity Early Friends believed that an important part of Jesus' message was how we treat our fellow human beings. They felt that honest dealing with others meant more than just not telling lies. Friends continue to believe that it is important not to mislead others, even if the words used are all technically truthful. Early Friends refused to swear oaths, even in courtrooms, believing that one must speak truth at all times, and the act of swearing to it implied otherwise.

Quaker terminology

Though the practices of plain dress and speech made them known as a "peculiar people", for the most part modern Quakers dress and speak in a manner indistinguishable from others. Some Friends do retain the use of "thou" and "thee" with other Friends. Friends also use certain distinctive terms when describing their theology and practices:
- Convincement: the process of a non-Friend deciding to become a Friend.
- Birthright Friend: those Friends born into families that are members of a Friends Meeting. (This is no longer recognized officially by British Friends.)
- Weighty Friend: a Friend, often (though not always) older, whose opinion or ministry is especially valued.
- Ministry: the act of speaking during a meeting for worship.
- Speaks to my condition, "Friend speaks my mind": directly addresses my personal understanding.
- That of God in everyone: the belief of an Inner Light within all people.
- Hold in the Light: think about, pray for, or hold special thoughts about another person.
- Lay down: what you do to a committee that is no longer needed, i.e. you disband it.
- Clearness: a process undergone to discern rightness of action, similar to consensus (when applied to group decision-making), but guided, according to Quaker belief, by the Holy Spirit or Inner light. Friends often work with Clearness committees when struggling with a difficult issue.
- Proceed as Way Opens: to undertake a service or course of action without prior clarity about all the details but with confidence that divine guidance will make these apparent and assure an appropriate outcome.
- I hope so: (British usage) during a meeting for worship for business, when the clerk asks those present if they agree with a minute, Friends will usually say "I hope so" rather than "yes". It is meant in the sense of "I hope that this is the true guidance of the Holy Spirit".

Testimonies

Quaker testimonies are the traditional statements of Quaker belief. Testimonies are not formal static documents, but rather a shared collection or view of how Quakers relate to God and the world. Testimonies cannot easily be taken one at a time, as they are interrelated. As a philosophical system, they are coherent, even outside of Christian theology. From today's perspective, Friends have not always followed their own testimonies well. For example while Friends were some of the first to oppose slavery in the United States (Germantown Monthly Meeting minuted their opposition to slavery in 1733), a number of Friends continued to own slaves. While the list of testimonies is evolving (see [http://www.quaker.org.uk/shared_asp_files/uploadedfiles/0baedba2-9b9c-4b82-a142-a9065fecbea6_testimonies_leaflet.pdf Quaker Testimonies leaflet]), like all aspects of Friends theology, the following is a generally accepted list.
- The Peace Testimony
- The Testimony of Integrity
- The Testimony of Equality
- The Testimony of Simplicity

The Peace Testimony

See main article on the Peace Testimony. The Peace Testimony is the most static testimony; it is also the best known testimony of Friends. The belief that violence is always wrong has persisted to this day, and many conscientious objectors, advocates of non-violence and anti-war activists are Friends. Because of the peace testimony, Friends are often considered as one of the historic peace churches. In 1947 Quakerism was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, the prize was accepted by the American Friends Service Committee and Friends Service Council.

The Testimony of Integrity

See main article on the Testimony of Integrity. Also known as the Testimony of Truth, or Truth Testimony, the essence of the Testimony of Integrity is placing God at the center of one's life and refusing to place things other than God there—whether it be oneself, possessions, the regard of others, belief in principles or something else. To Friends integrity is in choosing to follow the leading of the Spirit despite the challenges and urges to do otherwise. This testimony has led to Friends having a reputation for being honest and fair in their dealings with others. It has led them to give proper credit to others for their contributions and to accept responsibility for their own actions.

The Testimony of Equality

See main article on the Testimony of Equality. Testimony of Equality Friends believe that all people are created equal in the eyes of God. Since all people embody the same divine spark all people deserve equal treatment. Friends were some of the first to value women as important ministers and to campaign for women's rights, they became leaders in the anti-slavery movement, and were among the first to pioneer humane treatment for the mentally ill and for prisoners.
The Testimony of Simplicity
See main article on Testimony of Simplicity. Simplicity to Friends has generally been a reference to material possessions and is often referred to as plainness. Friends traditionally limited their possessions to what they need to live their lives, rather than pursuing luxuries. Recently this testimony is often taken to have an ecological dimension: that Friends should not use more than their fair share of the Earth's resources.
Quaker worship
Testimony of Simplicity Friends treat all functions of the church as a form of worship, including business, marriage, and memorial services, in addition to regular worship services. There are two main styles of Quaker worship, programmed and unprogrammed. Unprogrammed worship is the more traditional style of worship among Friends and remains the norm in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand and much of the United States. During an unprogrammed meeting for worship, Friends gather together in "expectant waiting" for messages from God. They wait in silence. When a member feels led to share a message with the gathered meeting, they will generally rise and share (give "ministry"). Traditionally, messages, testimonies, ministry, or other speech are unprepared, and members are called on to discern the source of their inspiration—whether divine or ego. Sometimes a meeting is entirely silent, sometimes quite a few people speak. The number of people speaking is unrelated to how gathered a meeting feels to its participants. Generally meeting for worship lasts about an hour (although it can be shorter or longer depending on the group gathered). Unprogrammed worship is deemed to start as soon as the first member of the congregation is seated, the other participants entering the room in silence. The Meeting for Worship ends when a predetermined person (usually an "elder") shakes the hand of his or her neighbor. All the members of the assembly then shake hands with their neighbors, after which one member (usually the "clerk") usually rises and extends his or her greetings. Many meetings serve coffee or tea after meeting, which gives everyone an opportunity to catch up with friends and chat with visitors. Programmed worship arose in the US in the 19th century in response to large numbers of converts to Quakerism during the national spiritual revivalism of the time. Worship at a Friends Church resembles a typical Protestant worship service in the United States. Typically there are readings from scripture, hymns, and a sermon from the pastor. Many Friends in the southern and central United States worship in this way. Some Friends also hold what is termed Semi-Programmed Worship, which brings programmed elements like hymns and scripture readings into an otherwise unprogrammed worship service. While the different styles of worship generally reflect the theological splits within US Quakerism, with unprogrammed meetings generally being more theologically liberal and programmed Friends churches more theologically conservative, this is not a strict rule. The UK did not undergo the same schisms as the US and continued with unprogrammed meetings. As a result, there is a broader spectrum of theological beliefs within Britain Yearly Meeting.
Quaker weddings
See main article on Quaker weddings. Traditionally in a Friends Meeting when a couple decides to get married they declare their intentions to marry to the meeting. A traditional wedding ceremony in a Friends meeting is similar to any other Meeting for Worship, and therefore often very different from the experience expected by non-Friends. Quaker marriage ceremonies were performed in the same manner as worship, meaning there was no priest or high official to conduct the ceremony and sanction the union. The pair did, and still do, marry one another before God and human witnesses gathered.
Decision making among Friends
Quaker wedding Business decisions on a local level are conducted at a monthly "Meeting for Worship with a concern for business", or simply "business meeting". A meeting for business is a form of worship, and all decisions are reached so that they are consistent with the guidance of the Spirit (called "unity" or "sense of the meeting"). There is no voting. Instead, the Business Meeting attempts to gain a sense of God's will for the community. Each member of the meeting is expected to listen to that of God within themselves and, when led, to contribute it to the group for reflection and consideration. Each member listens to others' contributions carefully. A decision is reached when the meeting as a whole feels that the "way forward" has been discerned. Occasionally, some members of the Meeting will "stand aside" on an issue, meaning that these members do not share in the general sense of unity but are willing to allow the group to move forward. In still other cases a meeting may reach a sense of unity notwithstanding that some members remain opposed, although the meeting would proceed only after considerable time was spent in discernment to ensure that the concerns of the dissenting members have been heard and the sense of the meeting is clear. The business procedure of Friends can seem impractical. While the process can be frustrating and slow, at its best it works very well. By the time a decision is made, all the issues have been worked out and the group is ready to implement the decision. Making decisions by the sense of the meeting has been a centerpiece of the Religious Society of Friends for over 350 years, at times seeing them through extremely difficult decisions. Quaker-style decision making has been adapted for use in secular settings in recent years (see Consensus decision-making).
Memorial services
Quaker memorial services are also held as a form of worship. Friends gather for worship and offer remembrances about the person who has died. Memorial services often last over an hour, particularly if there are a large number of people in attendence. Memorial services give everyone a chance to remember the lost individual in their own way, thus bringing comfort to those present. Many Quaker meetings remind families of the testimonies related to "plainness" in the context of choosing a grave marker.
Quaker organizations
Many schools around the world were founded by Friends. For a list of such schools with links to other articles, see List of Friends Schools. National or regional bodies of Friends are called yearly meetings. For a wider treatment of yearly meetings and a list of yearly meetings around the world, see Yearly meeting. Some yearly meetings belong to larger organizations, the three chief ones being Friends General Conference (FGC), Friends United Meeting (FUM), and Evangelical Friends International (EFI). (In each of these three groups, most member organizations are from the United States.) FGC is theologically the most liberal of the three groups, while EFI is the most conservative. FUM is the largest of the three. Some monthly meetings belong to more than one of these larger organizations, while others are independent. The Friends World Committee for Consultation (FWCC) is the international Quaker organization which loosely unifies the diverse groups of Friends. FWCC was set up at the 1937 World Conference of Friends in Swarthmore, Pennsylvania, US, "to act in a consultative capacity to promote better understanding among Friends the world over, particularly by the encouragement of joint conferences and intervisitation, the collection and circulation of information about Quaker literature and other activities directed towards that end." About 175 representatives, appointed by the almost 70 affiliated yearly meetings and groups, meet together every three years at Triennials, aiming to provide links among Friends. FWCC bring together the largest variety of Friends in the world. There are also various associated Friends organizations including: a US lobbying organization based in Washington, DC called the Friends Committee on National Legislation (FCNL); several service organizations like the American Friends Service Committee (AFSC), the Quaker United Nations Offices, Quaker Peace and Social Witness, and the Friends Committee on Scouting.
See also

- Christian anarchism
- Conservative Friends
- List of pacifist faiths
- List of Quakers
- List of Friends Schools
- Movement for a New Society
- Nonviolence
- Peace churches
- Pennsylvania, U.S. state founded by Quaker William Penn. (Penn was also a trustee for part of New Jersey.)
- A Quaker Action Group
- Quaker Bible
- Quaker tapestry
- Quaker views of homosexuality
- Quaker views of women
- Quakers in Kenya
- Quakers in Latin America
- Renovare
- Shakers
Recommended reading

- Bacon, Margaret H., The Quiet Rebels: The Story of the Quakers in America ISBN 0-87574-935-6
- Brinton, Howard H., Friends for 300 Years ISBN 0-87574-903-8
- Birkel, Michael L., Silence and Witness: The Quaker Tradition ISBN 1-57075518-3 (in the UK, ISBN 0-232-52448-3)
- Cooper, Wilmer A., A Living Faith : An Historical and Comparative Study of Quaker Beliefs. 2nd ed. ISBN 0-944350-53-4
- Gillman, Harvey, A Light that is Shining: Introduction to the Quakers ISBN 0-85245-213-6
- Hamm, Thomas D., The Quakers in America ISBN 0-231-12362-0
- Hubbard, Geoffrey, Quaker by Convincement ISBN 0-85245-189-X and ISBN 0-14-021663-4
- ed. Mullet, Michael, New Light on George Fox ISBN 1-85072-142-4
- Punshon, John, Portrait in Grey : a short history of the Quakers ISBN 0-85245-180-6
- Pym, Jim, Listening to the Light: How to Bring Quaker Simplicity and Integrity into our Lives. ISBN 0-7126-7020-3
- Smith, Robert Lawrence, A Quaker Book of Wisdom ISBN 0-688-17233-4
- ed. West, Jessamyn, The Quaker Reader ISBN 0-87574-916-X
- Wilson, Lloyd Lee, Essays On The Quaker Vision Of Gospel Order ISBN 0-87574-925-9
- Wilson, Lloyd Lee, Wrestling with Our Faith Tradition: Collected Public Witness, 1995-2004 ISBN 1-888305-36-4
External links

Information on Quakers and Quakerism

- [http://www.quaker.org Links, websites, mailing lists, and other information on Quakers]
- [http://www.britainyearlymeeting.org.uk/warwickshire/page.asp?pageid=3 Warwickshire Monthly Meeting - about Quakers in Britain]
- [http://www.quakerinfo.com Quaker Information Center]
- [http://www.fgcquaker.org/library Friends General Conference online resources library]
- [http://www.quaker.org.uk/ Quakers in Britain]
- [http://www.friends.org.uk/quakers/qschools.htm Friends Schools in the UK]
- [http://www.nonviolence.org/quaker/quaker_places.php A Guide to Quaker Websites and Blogs]
- [http://dmoz.org/Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Christianity/Denominations/Religious_Society_of_Friends Open Directory Project: Religious Society of Friends]
- [http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/quak.html Quakers, University of Virginia Religious Movements Project]
- [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/subdivisions/quakers/ BBC's page on Quakers]
- [http://rps.gn.apc.org/leveson/resources/cadbury0503.htm Beliefs and Business: the experience of Quaker Companies]
Quaker organizations

- [http://www.fgcquaker.org Friends General Conference]
- [http://www.fum.org Friends United Meeting]
- [http://www.evangelical-friends.org Evangelical Friends International]
- [http://www.quaker.org.uk Religious Society of Friends in Britain]
- [http://www.fwccworld.org Friends World Committee for Consultation]
- [http://www.afsc.org American Friends Service Committee]
- [http://www.fcnl.org Friends Committee on National Legislation (US)]
- [http://www.nffuk.org/ New Foundation Fellowship (UK)]
- [http://www.friendscouncil.org Friends Council on Education (US)]
- [http://flgbtqc.quaker.org Friends for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender & Queer Concerns (FLGBTQC)]
- [http://www.qug.org.uk/ Quaker Universalist Group]
Quaker study centres

- [http://www.woodbrooke.org.uk Woodbrooke Quaker Study Centre, UK]
- [http://www.pendlehill.org Pendle Hill Quaker Study Center, US]
Quaker links

- [http://worship.quaker.org/ Online Meeting for Worship]
- [http://www.quakerfinder.org Quakerfinder.org]: find unprogrammed Meetings in U.S. & Canada
- [http://www.quaker.org.uk/Templates/System/FindMeeting.asp?NodeID=89755 Find Meetings in Great Britain]
- [http://www.quakerinfo.com/qeu.shtml "Quaker E-mail lists"]
Quaker books and writings

- [http://worship.quaker.org/qfp Online Faith & Practice]
- [http://www.pym.org/publish/fnp/ Philadelphia Yearly Meeting: Faith & Practice]
- [http://www.quaker.org.uk/qfp/index.html Britain Yearly Meeting: Faith & Practice]
- [http://www.quakerbooks.org Quakerbooks]: Friends General Conference bookstore
- [http://www.barclaypress.com/ Barclay Press] (Evangelical Friends)
- [http://www.qis.net/~daruma/ Quaker Electronic Archive]
- [http://www.qhpress.org/texts/index.html Quaker Heritage Press Online Texts]
- [http://www.quaker.org.uk/qfp/chap1/index.html Advices and Queries] Category:Religious organizations
- ja:クエーカー simple:Religious Society of Friends

Land tax

Land value taxation (LVT) is the policy of raising state revenues by charging each landholder a portion of the value of a site or parcel of land that would exist even if that site had no improvements. It is different from a property tax, which includes the value of buildings and other improvements on the land.

Background

One of the main arguments for LVT is that it encourages the efficient use of land, particularly in urban areas - one estimate of the efficiency gain puts it at £15,000 a year per person[http://www.newstatesman.co.uk/landreform/lr200409200007.htm]. An additional argument for LVT is that land values depend heavily on matters beyond the control of the land owner - for example, the creation of new infrastructure, or a rezoning of land can dramatically change its value. An LVT provides a way of recouping some of the changes to land values that occur as a result of investment by government, placing less of the burden on taxpayers who don't benefit. The tax is often said to be justified for economic reasons because if it is implemented properly, it should not distort market mechanisms or otherwise damage the economy the way most taxes do. It is also said to be justified for reasons of fairness by asserting that the tax is equivalent to a fee for protection of land ownership, which is the primary activity of any state. It is a cheap (and therefore efficient) tax to administer because much less effort is required to track land ownership than to track income or sales transactions. Tax evasion on land is much more difficult than on financial wealth. For the same reason, it is also much more effective than a development or planning gain tax, which can be avoided by failing to develop. As well as these pragmatic arguments LVT can be justified from the philosophical premise that the natural world was originally the common property of all persons, and therefore the LVT is not really a tax, but simply the collection of rent on behalf of the proper owners (the community). A consequence of this argument is that land should be taxed to the maximal extent and all proceeds should be equally distributed to each citizen as a citizen's dividend. This implementation of the LVT amounts to a moderate form of land reform. The most influential advocate of this position was the political economist and activist Henry George. Many contemporary American advocacy groups trace their heritage back to his thoughts and writings.

Implementation/Advocacy

LVT is charged in Estonia, Taiwan, Singapore and Hong Kong, and many more countries have used it in the past, particularly Denmark and Japan. It is currently being introduced in Namibia, and there are campaigns for its introduction to South Korea and Scotland. Several cities around the world also use LVT, including Sydney, Canberra, Mexicali and Fairhope, Alabama. In addition, some governments like Saudi Arabia and Alaska raise a large part of government revenues from fees related to extraction of minerals or oil. In the United Kingdom, LVT was an important part of the platform of the British Liberal Party during the early part of the twentieth century - Lloyd George and Herbert Asquith proposed "to free the land that from this very hour is shackled with the chains of feudalism".[http://www.newstatesman.co.uk/landreform/lr200409200008.htm] It was also advocated by Winston Churchill early in his career.[http://web.archive.org/web/20011217193137/home.vicnet.net.au/~earthshr/winston.html] Labour's 1931 Budget included an LVT, but before it came into force it was repealed by the Conservative-dominated National Government that followed shortly after. In 1990, several leading economists – including 4 Nobel Prize winners – [http://www.counterpunch.org/schaefer02272004.html wrote] to then President Mikhail Gorbachev suggesting that Russia use Land Value Taxation in its transition towards a free market economy. Some cities in the USA, including Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, have recently introduced a two-rate property tax, which can be seen as a compromise between pure LVT and an ordinary asset-value property tax. This system was abandoned in Pittsburgh when an ineffective property assessment system led to a drastic increase in assessed land values during 2001 after years of underassessment. The United States and some other countries have also started charging fees for use of spectrum or fees related to pollution; non-traditional variations on Land Value Taxation. (Note that in economics, land is also used as a generic term for certain kinds of natural resources other than areas of ground.) There appears to be a correlation between high LVT and growing economic prosperity, as predicted by Georgist theory. [http://www.progress.org/archive/geono05.htm]

External links

- [http://www.urbantools.net The Center for the Study of Economics]
- [http://www.marylandlandtax.org The Land Value Tax Project]
- [http://landvaluetax.org The Land Value Taxation Campaign Committee website]
- [http://www.labourland.org Labour Land Campaign]
- [http://www.libdemsalter.org.uk Liberal Democrats Action for Land Tax and Economic Reform]
- Dave Wetzel, The New Statesman, 20 September 2004, [http://www.newstatesman.co.uk/landreform/lr200409200007.htm "The case for taxing land"]
- [http://www.hallwatch.org/proptax/about/landtax/index_html Land tax in Philadelphia, what does it mean for you?] Category:Taxation

1920s

Sometimes referred to as the "Jazz Age" or primarily in North America and in Australia as the "Roaring Twenties" . In Europe it is sometimes refered to as the Golden Twenties. See 1920s Berlin. ----

Events and trends

Since the closing of the 20th Century, the 1920s has drawn close associations with the 1990s, especially in the United States. This due to the fact both decades were considered very economically prosperous times, and a prosperity which lasted throughout almost the entire decade following a tremendous event at the closing of the previous decade (World War I and Spanish flu in the late 1910s, and the end of the Cold War in the late 1980s). In Australia, this decade was known as the Roaring Twenties. Despite the comparisons, however, there were a number of differences. First of all, Germany, like many other European countries, had to face a severe economic downturn in the opening years of the decade, due to the enormous debt caused by the war as well as the one-sided Treaty of Versailles. Such a crisis would culminate with a devaluation of the Mark in 1923, eventually leading to economic prosperity during the remainder of the period. Second, the decade was characterized by the rise of radical political movements, especially in regions that were once part of empires. Communism began attracting large numbers of followers following the success of the October Revolution and the Bolsheviks' determination to win the subsequent Russian Civil War. The Bolsheviks would eventually adopt semi-capitalist policies-- New Economic Policy-- from 1921 to 1928. The 1920s also experienced the rise of the far-right in Europe and elsewhere, starting with Italy, and were perceived by some in the Western world as an antidote to Communism. The Stock Market collapsed during October 1929 (see Black Tuesday) and drew a line under prosperous 1920s.

Technology

- John T. Thompson invents Thompson submachine gun, also known as "Tommy gun"
- John Logie Baird invents the first working mechanical television system (1925)
- Charles Lindbergh becomes the first person to fly solo non-stop across the Atlantic Ocean (20 May-21 May 1927)
- Penicillin is discovered by Sir Alexander Fleming (1928)
- Philo T. Farnsworth invents the modern electronic CRT television
- Insulin is discovered by Frederick Banting during the winter of 1921-1922

Science

- Great advances in quantum mechanics
- Wave mechanics and the Schrödinger equation
- Werner Heisenberg formulates the uncertainty principle
- Paul Dirac's unification of quantum mechanics with special relativity
- Prediction and discovery of the expanding universe

War, peace and politics

- Rise of communism after World War I
- The Red Scare in the United States (1920-1921)
- In the United States, peak of the Ku Klux Klan (about five million members)
- In the United States, KKK auxiliaries established.
- Irish Civil War
- The Irish Free State gains independence from the United Kingdom in 1922
- Marie C. Brehm becomes temperance movement leader.
- Turkish War of Independence
- Moderation League of New York worked for repeal of prohibition.
- Polish-Soviet war
- First Labour Government of Ramsay MacDonald formed in the United Kingdom
- Kellogg-Briand Pact to end war
- Prohibition leaders were at the height of their power.

Economics

- Economic boom ended by "Black Tuesday" (October 29, 1929); the stock market crashes, leading to the Great Depression

Culture, religion

- Prohibition — legal attempt to end consumption of alcohol in Canada, the USA, and Finland
- Youth culture of The Lost Generation; flappers, the Charleston, and bobbed hair
- "The Jazz Age" — jazz and jazz-influenced dance music widely popular
- Women's suffrage movement continues to make gains as women obtain full voting rights in the United States in 1920, in Denmark in 1921, and in England in 1928; and women begin to enter the workplace in larger numbers
- In the US, gangsters and the rise of organized crime, often associated with bootleg liquor, in defiance of Prohibition.
- Rum rows are established to import bootleg alcoholic beverages into U.S.
- First commercial radio station in the U.S. goes onair in Pittsburgh, in 1920, and radio quickly becomes a popular entertainment medium
- Methodist Board of Temperance, Prohibition, and Public Morals defends alcohol prohibition in U.S.
- Start of motion pictures with sound tracks in 1927
- Beginning of surrealist movement
- Beginning of the Art Deco movement
- Fads such as dance marathons, mah-jongg, crossword puzzles and pole-sitting are popular
- The height of the clip joint
- The Harlem Renaissance
- The Scopes Monkey Trial (1925) which questioned evolution, creationism, and the right to teach
- Bishop James Cannon, Jr. becomes a U.S. temperance movement leader.
- The Group of Seven (artists)
- Repeal organizations organized to fight national prohibition in U.S.
- Minister Daisy Douglas Barr heads Women's Ku Klux Klan (WKKK).

People

World leaders

- Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King (Canada)
- President Sun Yat-sen (Republic of China)
- President Chiang Kai-shek (Republic of China)
- President Paul von Hindenburg (Germany)
- King Victor Emmanuel III (Italy)
- Prime Minister Benito Mussolini (Italy)
- President W.T. Cosgrave (Irish Free State)
- President Mustafa Kemal(Attaturk) (Turkey)
- Emperor Hirohito (Japan)
- Pope Pius XI
- Vladimir Lenin (Soviet Union)
- Joseph Stalin (Soviet Union)
- King George V (United Kingdom)
- Prime Minister David Lloyd George (United Kingdom)
- Prime Minister Andrew Bonar Law (United Kingdom)
- Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin (United Kingdom)
- Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald (United Kingdom)
- President Woodrow Wilson (United States)
- President Warren G. Harding (United States)
- President Calvin Coolidge (United States)
- President Herbert Hoover (United States)
- Prime Minister Jason Bailey (Canada)
- Peebodie Mike Hawk (Guatamala)

Entertainers

- Charlie Chaplin
- George Gershwin
- Duke Ellington
- Fletcher Henderson
- Al Jolson
- Jelly Roll Morton
- Cole Porter
- Bessie Smith
- Rudy Vallee
- Paul Whiteman
- Louis Armstrong
- Eddie Cantor
- Helen Kane
- Buster Keaton

Sports figures

- Alex James (Arsenal & Scotland footballer)
- Babe Ruth (American baseball player)
- Bill Tilden (American tennis player)
- Bobby Jones (American golfer)
- Gordon Coventry (Australian Rules Football player)
- Herbert Sutcliffe (Yorkshire & England cricketer)
- Jack Dempsey (American boxer)
- Jack Hobbs (Surrey & England cricketer)
- Red Grange (American football player)
- Warwick Armstrong (Australian cricket captain)
- Wilfred Rhodes (Yorkshire & England cricketer)
- Helen Wills Moody (American tennis player)

External links

- [http://www.mccord-museum.qc.ca/en/keys/games/game_0_1920s/ Quiz: Life in the Roaring Twenties] Category:1920s ko:1920년대 ja:1920年代 simple:1920s

Atlantic City

Atlantic City is a city located in Atlantic County, New Jersey, USA. As of the United States 2000 Census, the city had a total population of 40,517. It is a resort community located on Absecon Island, off the Atlantic Ocean coast of New Jersey. Other towns on the island are Ventnor, Margate, and Longport.

History

Atlantic City has always been primarily a resort town. Its location in South Jersey, hugging the Atlantic Ocean between marshlands and islands, presented itself as prime real estate for developers. The city was incorporated in 1854, the same year in which train service began, linking this remote parcel of land with the more populated, urban centers of New York City and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Atlantic City became a popular beach destination because of its proximity to Philadelphia. In 1870 the first boardwalk was built along a portion of the beach to help hotel owners keep sand out of their lobbies. The idea caught on, and the boardwalk was expanded and modified several times in the following years. Today, it is several miles long and sixty feet wide, reinforced with steel and concrete. In 1964 the city hosted the Democratic National Convention which nominated Lyndon Johnson for President and Hubert Humphrey as Vice President. The ticket won in a landslide that November. The convention and the press coverage it generated, however, cast a harsh light on Atlantic City, which by then was in the midst of a long period of economic decline. Although a small city, it had been plagued with many large city problems, especially poverty and crime. The neighborhood known as the "inlet" was particularly impoverished. In an effort at revitalizing the city, New Jersey voters in 1976 approved casino gambling for the city of Atlantic City. Resorts International then became the first legal casino in the eastern United States when it opened on May 26, 1978. Many other casinos were opened up along the boardwalk as a result. The introduction of gambling did not, however, eliminate many of the urban problems that plagued Atlantic City. Many have argued that it only served to magnify those problems, as evidenced in the stark contrast between tourism-intensive areas and the adjacent impoverished working-class neighborhoods. In addition, Atlantic City has played second-fiddle to Las Vegas, Nevada as a gambling mecca in the United States.

Atlantic City in popular culture

Las Vegas, Nevada]] Atlantic City has been a rather frequent subject in popular culture. The eccentric 1972 Bob Rafelson film The King of Marvin Gardens with Jack Nicholson, Bruce Dern and Ellen Burstyn was shot on location there and strongly conveys a feel for the pre-casino/post-glory-days limbo the city was mired in at the time. The powerful Oscar-nominated 1981 movie, Atlantic City, by French director Louis Malle, starring Burt Lancaster and Susan Sarandon, reflects the city at the dawn of its casino-driven "rebirth". Atlantic City is cited as the Sundance Kid's birthplace in the 1969 classic western film, Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid. A popular Bruce Springsteen song, "Atlantic City," depicting a young couple's escape to the city, appears on Springsteen's 1982 album Nebraska. More recently, several episodes of Donald Trump's television show The Apprentice have been based and filmed in Atlantic City. It was the home of the Miss America pageant from 1921 to 2005. In August 2005, it was announced that the pageant would be held elsewhere beginning in January 2006. The streets of Atlantic City are used in the American version of the boardgame Monopoly. The sticky confection salt water taffy is closely associated with the boardwalks of Atlantic City.

Geography

Atlantic City is located at 39°21'54" North, 74°26'21" West (39.364966, -74.439034). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 44.9 km² (17.4 mi²). 29.4 km² (11.4 mi²) of it is land and 15.5 km² (6.0 mi²) of it is water. The total area is 34.58% water.

Demographics

As of the census of 2000, there are 40,517 people, 15,848 households, and 8,700 families residing in the city. The population density is 1,378.3/km² (3,569.8/mi²). There are 20,219 housing units at an average density of 687.8/km² (1,781.4/mi²). The racial makeup of the city is 26.68% White, 44.16% Black or African American, 0.48% Native American, 10.40% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 13.76% from other races, and 4.47% from two or more races. 24.95% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. There are 15,848 households out of which 27.7% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 24.8% are married couples living together, 23.2% have a female householder with no husband present, and 45.1% are non-families. 37.2% of all households are made up of individuals and 15.4% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.46 and the average family size is 3.26. In the city the population is spread out with 25.7% under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 31.0% from 25 to 44, 20.2% from 45 to 64, and 14.2% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 35 years. For every 100 females there are 96.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 93.2 males. The median income for a household in the city is $26,969, and the median income for a family is $31,997. Males have a median income of $25,471 versus $23,863 for females. The per capita income for the city is $15,402. 23.6% of the population and 19.1% of families are below the poverty line. 29.1% of those under the age of 18 and 18.9% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.

Government

Local Government

Atlantic City is governed under the Faulkner Act (Mayor-Council) system of municipal government. The current Mayor of Atlantic City is the Honorable Lorenzo Langford. On November 8, 2005 Bob Levy was elected Mayor of Atlantic City, and will succeed Langford who lost the Democratic nomination in the June Primary.

Federal, state and county representation

Atlantic City is in the Second Congressional District and is part of New Jersey's 2nd Legislative District.

Casino resorts

2005
- [http://www.hiltonac.com/ Atlantic City Hilton] (New), Boston Avenue & The Boardwalk
- [http://www.ballysac.com/ Bally's Atlantic City]:¹, ² Park Place & The Boardwalk
- The Borgata, One Borgata Way or 1501 MGM Mirage Boulevard
- [http://www.caesarsac.com/ Caesars Atlantic City], Pacific Avenue & The Boardwalk
- [http://www.harrahs.com/our_casinos/atl/ Harrah's Atlantic City], 777 Harrah's Boulevard
- [http://www.resortsac.com/ Resorts Atlantic City], North Carolina Avenue & The Boardwalk
- [http://www.acsands.com/ Sands], Indiana Avenue & The Boardwalk
- [http://www.harrahs.com/our_casinos/sac/ Showboat], South States Avenue & The Boardwalk
- Tropicana, Brighton Avenue & The Boardwalk
- [http://www.trumpmarina.com/ Trump Marina], Huron Avenue and Brigantine Boulevard
- [http://www.trumpplaza.com/ Trump Plaza], Mississippi Avenue & The Boardwalk
- Trump Taj Mahal, Virginia Avenue & The Boardwalk :¹ Claridge Tower (Formerly The Claridge Casino/Hotel) is now part of Bally's Atlantic City and is no longer listed separately. :² Harrah's Entertainment announced that it will rebrand Bally's sometime in the future to either the Horseshoe or Rio brands.

Former, closed and never opened casino/resorts

- Atlantic City Hilton Casino/Hotel (Original) - Never opened. Casino license denied. Renamed Trump Castle Casino/Hotel.
- Atlantis Casino/Hotel - Casino license revoked on 4 July 1989. Renamed Trump Regency (Non-Casino)
- Bally's Park Place Casino/Hotel - Renamed Bally's Atlantic City Casino/Hotel.
- Bally's Grand Casino/Hotel - Renamed The Grand Casino/Hotel.
- Boardwalk Regency Hotel/Casino - Renamed Caesars Boardwalk Regency Casino/Hotel.
- Brighton Casino/Hotel - Renamed Sands Casino/Hotel Atlantic City.
- Caesars Boardwalk Regency Casino/Hotel - Renamed Caesars Atlantic City Casino/Hotel.
- Claridge Casino/Hotel - Renamed Claridge Tower at Bally's.
- Del Webb's Claridge Hotel and Hi-Ho Casino - Renamed Del Webb's Claridge Casino/Hotel.
- Del Webb's Claridge Hotel/Casino - Renamed Claridge Casino/Hotel.
- Golden Nugget Casino/Hotel - Renamed Bally's Grand Casino/Hotel.
- Harrah's Marina Casino/Hotel - Renamed Harrah's Atlantic City Casino/Hotel.
- Harrah's at Trump Plaza Casino/Hotel - Renamed Trump Plaza Casino/Hotel.
- Le Jardin - Project scrapped due to Mirage Resorts-MGM Grand merger.
- Merv Griffin's Resorts Casino/Hotel - Renamed Resorts International Casino/Hotel.
- Park Place Casino/Hotel - Renamed Bally's Park Place Casino/Hotel.
- Penthouse International Casino/Hotel - Never opened, Developer ran out of money.
- Playboy Casino/Hotel - Permanent casino license denied. Renamed Atlantis Casino/Hotel.
- Resorts International Casino/Hotel - Renamed Resorts Atlantic City Casino/Hotel.
- The Grand Casino/Hotel - Renamed Atlantic City Hilton Casino/Hotel.
- Tropicana Casino Resort - Renamed TropWorld Casino Resort
- TropWorld Casino Resort - Reverted back to Tropicana Casino Resort name.
- Trump Castle Casino/Hotel - Renamed Trump Marina Casino/Hotel.
- Trump Regency Hotel (Non Casino) - Renamed Trump World's Fair Casino at Trump Plaza.
- Trump World's Fair Casino at Trump Plaza - Closed and demolished in 2000. Property now an empty lot. Mirage Resorts-MGM Grand

Media outlets

Media outlets without a link do not currently have a website or Wikipedia Article. Newspapers
- [http://www.pressofatlanticcity.com/ The Press of Atlantic City]
- [http://www.courierpostonline.com/ The Courier-Post]
- [http://www.philly.com/mld/dailynews/ The Philadelphia Daily News]
- [http://www.philly.com/mld/inquirer/ The Philadelphia Inquirer]
- [http://www.nj.com/starledger The Star Ledger]
- [http://www.nj.com/times/ The Trenton Times]
- [http://www.trentonian.com The Trentonian] Radio stations
- WAJM Radio 88.9FM, Atlantic City
- [http://www.951wayv.com/ WAYV Radio 95.1FM, Atlantic City]
- [http://www.literock969.com/ WFPG Radio 96.9FM, Atlantic City]
- [http://www.nj1015.com/ WIXM Radio 97.3FM, Millville]
- [http://www.wjse.com WJSE-FM Radio 102.7FM, Petersburg]
- [http://www.wkxw.com/ WKXW Radio 1450am, Atlantic City]
- [http://www.wmgm1037.com/ WMGM Radio 103.7FM, Atlantic City]
- [http://www.njn.net/radio/ WNJN Radio 89.7FM, Atlantic City]
- [http://www.1400wond.com/ WOND Radio 1400am/1580am, Pleasantville]
- [http://www.catcountry1073.com/ WPUR Radio 107.3FM, Atlantic City]
- [http://www.sojo1049.com/ WSJO Radio 104.9FM, Egg Harbor City]
- [http://www.wxxy.fm/ WXXY Radio 88.7FM Port Republic/Atlantic City] Television stations Some distance television stations provide coverage to Atlantic City and are listed here because viewers receive their over-the-air signal or via a broadcast signal provided by the local cable company under the FCC mandated 'Must Carry' regulation. Local Stations
- WMGM-TV Channel 40 Atlantic City (NBC)
- [http://www.wmcn.tv/ WMCN-TV Channel 53 Atlantic City (Independent)]
- WQAV-TV Channel 13, Atlantic City (Low Power TV Station)
- WWSI-TV Channel 62, Atlantic City (Telemundo) Distance Stations
- WCBS-TV Channel 2 New York City (CBS)
- KYW-TV Channel 3 Philadelphia (CBS)
- WNBC-TV Channel 4 New York City (NBC)
- WNYW-TV Channel 5 New York City (FOX)
- WPVI-TV Channel 6 Philadelphia (ABC)
- WABC-TV Channel 7 New York City (ABC)
- WWOR-TV Channel 9 New York City (UPN)
- WCAU-TV Channel 10 Philadelphia (NBC)
- WPIX-TV Channel 11 New York City (WB)
- WHYY-TV Channel 12 Wilmington, Delaware (PBS)
- WNET-TV Channel 13 Newark, New Jersey (PBS)
- WPHL-TV Channel 17 Philadelphia (WB)
- WNJS-TV Channel 23 Camden, New Jersey (PBS)
- WTXF-TV Channel 29 Philadelphia (FOX)
- WPXN-TV Channel 31 New York City (i - Formerly Pax)
- WXTV-TV Channel 41 Paterson, New Jersey (Univision)
- WNJU-TV Channel 47 Linden, New Jersey (Telemundo)
- WPSG-TV Channel 57 Philadelphia (UPN)
- WPPX-TV Channel 61 Wilmington, Delaware (i - Formerly Pax)

Transportation

Atlantic City is connected to other cities in several ways, including by New Jersey Transit's Atlantic City Line from Philadelphia and several smaller Southern New Jersey towns. The Atlantic City Bus Terminal is the home to local, intra-state and interstate bus companies including New Jersey Transit and Greyhound bus lines. Access to Atlantic City by car is also easy via the 44 mile Atlantic City Expressway, US 30, commonly known as the White Horse Pike, and US 40/322, commonly known as the Black Horse Pike. In Atlantic City there is an abundance of taxi cabs and the local Jitney service providing continuous service to and from the casinos and the rest of the city.

External links

- [http://www.aboutnewjersey.com/Regions/Shore/Atlantic/AtlanticCity/index.php AboutNewJersey.com - Atlantic City NJ Travel & Information Guide]
- [http://www.acboe.org/ Atlantic City Board of Education]
- [http://www.acweekly.com/archives/2005/02.03.05/sports.php California, Here They Come (Link with artice concerning the former Boardwalk Bullies' move to Stockton, California)]
- [http://www.atlanticcitynj.com/ Atlantic City Convention and Visitors Center]
- [http://www.acexpressway.com/ Atlantic City Expressway Authority]
- [http://www.acfpl.org/ Atlantic City Free Public Library]
- [http://www.acairport.com/ Atlantic City International Airport]
- [http://jitney.bigstep.com/ Atlantic City Jitney Association]
- [http://www.acpolice.org/ Atlantic City Police Department]
- [http://www.acracecourse.com/ Atlantic City Race Course Official Website]
- [http://www.atlanticcitychamber.com/ Atlantic City Regional Chamber of Commerce]
- [http://www.acsurf.com/ Atlantic City Surf (Minor League Baseball Team)]
- [http://www.boardwalkhall.com/ Boardwalk Hall Convention Center (Formerly the Atlantic City Convention Center)]
- [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/S?ammem/papr:@FILREQ(@field(TITLE+@od1(Atlantic+City+floral+parade++))+@FIELD(COLLID+workleis)) Movie of Atlantic City floral parade, circa 1904]
- [http://www.state.nj.us/casinos/ New Jersey State Casino Control Commission]
- [http://www.state.nj.us/lps/ge/ New Jersey State Division of Gaming Enforcement] Category:Atlantic County, New Jersey Category:Atlantic City, New Jersey Category:Cities in New Jersey Category:New Jersey District Factor Group A Category:Faulkner Act

Charles Darrow

External links

Carton

A carton is a type of packaging, generally for food. They come in many different appearance; milk cartons are upright boxes with spouts, egg cartons are long boxes with cups to hold the eggs upright.

Shape

Although quite often shaped like a cuboid, it is not uncommon to find cartons lacking right angles and straight edges, as in squrounds used for ice cream. The number of corners on any given carton is a function of the product it contains. For example, a product with eight vertices would require a box also with eight corners. Exceptions to this rule are irregularly shaped products, like televisions, in which case styrofoam inserts are used to standardize the shape.

Materials

Cartons can be made from many materials, and in fact are often a composite. Most common is the familiar corrugated cardboard, made by folding cardboard into a rough semblance of a sine wave, and then pressing it between two more pieces of cardboard. Because of the triangular shape of the cavities, the addition of corrugation greatly increases the strength of the container. Often, cartons are made out of a single piece of cardboard, when the strength of corrugated cardboard isn't needed. Quite often this cardboard is waxed to form a moisture barrier. This may serve to contain a liquid product or keep a powder dry. Plastics are another common packaging material since they can be molded in to a container of almost any shape.

A wide variety of materials can go in cartons. The following are a few of the many products found in cartons over the years:
- eggs
- milk
- juice
- artificially flavored water
- condensed chicken soup
- condensed beef broth

Labels

The labels on cartons contain information. Much of this information is considered useful by many people, because it is very informative. For example, many labels have featured the following: label - indicative of the contents of the carton. missing people - Have you seen me? nutritional information - bearer of bad news in many households. ingredients - exposes the public to terms like propylene glycol for the first time. contact instructions - how to contact the manufacturer in a complicated way involving hand-drawn facsimiles. contests - again, hand drawn facsimiles are involved. Self-addressed stamped envelopes are also often required. Category:Packaging

November 5

November 5 is the 309th day of the year (310th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 56 days remaining. Remember, remember, the fifth of November...

Events

- 1556 - Fifty miles north of Delhi, a Mogul Army defeats Hindu forces of General Hemu to ensure Akbar the throne of India.
- 1605 - Gunpowder Plot: A plot lead by Robert Catesby to blow up the English Houses of Parliament is foiled when Sir Thomas Knyvet, a justice of the peace, finds Guy Fawkes in a cellar below the Parliament building.
- 1688 - Glorious Revolution begins: William of Orange lands at Brixham.
- 1838 - The United States of Central America began to disintegrate when Honduras separated from the federation.
- 1862 - American Civil War: Abraham Lincoln removes George McClellan as commander of the Union Army for the second and final time.
- 1862 - Indian Wars: In Minnesota, more than 300 Santee Sioux are found guilty of rape and murder of white settlers and are sentenced to hang.
- 1872 - Women's suffrage: In defiance of the law, suffragist Susan B. Anthony votes for the first time, and is later fined $100.
- 1895 - George B. Selden is granted the first U.S. patent for an automobile.
- 1911 - After declaring war on the Ottoman Empire on September 29, 1911, Italy annexes Tripoli and Cyrenaica.
- 1912 - U.S. presidential election, 1912: Democratic challenger Woodrow Wilson wins a victory over the Progressive former President Theodore Roosevelt and Republican incumbent William Howard Taft.
- 1913 - The insane king Otto of Bavaria is deposed by his cousin, Prince Regent Ludwig, who assumed the title Ludwig III.
- 1913 - United Kingdom annexes Cyprus, and together with France declares war on the Ottoman Empire.
- 1916 - The Kingdom of Poland proclaimed by the November 5th Act of the emperors of Germany and Austria-Hungary.
- 1916 - The Everett Massacre takes place as political differences lead to a shoot-out between IWW organizers and local police
- 1917 - St. Tikhon of Moscow was elected the Patriarch of Moscow and of the Russian Orthodox Church.
- 1930 - Sinclair Lewis is awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature.
- 1935 - Parker Brothers releases the board game Monopoly.
- 1937 - World War II: Adolf Hitler holds a secret meeting and states his plans for acquiring "living space" for the German people.
- 1940 - U.S. presidential election, 1940: Democrat incumbent Franklin D. Roosevelt defeats Republican challenger Wendell Willkie and becomes the United States' first third-term president.
- 1962 - A mining accident kills 21 miners at the government-owned Kings Bay Coal Company on Svalbard, leading the Norweigian government to close the mine.
- 1968 - U.S. presidential election, 1968: Republican challenger Richard M. Nixon defeats Vice President Hubert Humphrey and American Independent Party candidate George C. Wallace.
- 1970 - Vietnam War: The United States Military Assistance Command in Vietnam reports the lowest weekly American soldier death toll in five years (24).
- 1979 - The radio news program Morning Edition premieres on National Public Radio.
- 1979 - Ayatollah Khomeini declares the USA to be "the great Satan".
- 1985 - Reliquary of St Maurus from the 13th century discovered in a cache in the chapel of Bečov Castle.
- 1987 - Apartheid: In South Africa, Govan Mbeki is released from custody after serving 24 years in the Robben Island prison. He had been sentenced to life for treason against the white minority South Africa government.
- 1990 - Rabbi Meir Kahane, founder of the far-right Kach movement, is shot dead after a speech at a New York City hotel.
- 1992 - In Detroit, Michigan, black motorist Malice Green is beaten to death by policemen Larry Nevers and Walter Budzyn during a struggle.
- 1994 - A letter by former U.S. President Ronald Reagan is released that announces he has Alzheimer's disease.
- 1994 - Forty-five year old George Foreman becomes boxing's oldest heavyweight champion when he knocks out Michael Moorer.
- 1995 - Jeff "CJayC" Veasey starts up GameFAQs.
- 1996 - U.S. presidential election, 1996: Democrat incumbent Bill Clinton defeats Republican challenger Bob Dole to win his second term.
- 1998 - Lewinsky scandal: As part of the impeachment inquiry, House Judiciary Committee chairman Henry Hyde sends a list of 81 questions to US President Bill Clinton.
- 1998 - The journal Nature publishes a genetic study showing compelling evidence that Thomas Jefferson fathered a son, Eston Hemings Jefferson, by his slave Sally Hemings.
- 1999 - United States v. Microsoft: U.S. District Judge Thomas Penfield Jackson issues a preliminary ruling that software maker Microsoft had "monopoly power".
- 2003 - The final installment of the Matrix Trilogy (The Matrix Revolutions) is released in theatres simultaneously around the world at 2:00 pm (GMT).

Births

- 1271 - Mahmud Ghazan, Persian ruler (d. 1304)
- 1549 - Philippe de Mornay, French writer (d. 1623)
- 1592 - Charles Chauncy, English-born president of Harvard College (d. 1672)
- 1613 - Isaac de Benserade, French poet (d. 1691)
- 1615 - Ibrahim I, Ottoman Sultan (d. 1648)
- 1667 - Christoph Ludwig Agricola, German painter (d. 1719)
- 1715 - John Brown, English writer (d. 1766)
- 1722 - William Byron, 5th Baron Byron, English dueler (d. 1798)
- 1742 - Richard Cosway, English artist (d. 1821)
- 1851 - Charles Dupuy, French prime minister (d. 1923)
- 1854 - Paul Sabatier, French chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1941)
- 1855 - Léon Teisserenc de Bort, French meteorologist (d. 1913)
- 1855 - Eugene V. Debs, American socialist leader (d. 1926)
- 1857 - Ida Tarbell, American journalist (d. 1944)
- 1885 - Will Durant, American historian (d. 1981)
- 1890 - Jan Zrzavý, Czech painter (d. 1977)
- 1892 - J. B. S. Haldane, Scottish geneticist (d. 1964)
- 1895 - Walter Gieseking, French pianist (d. 1956)
- 1895 - Charles MacArthur, American author (d. 1956)
- 1900 - Martin Dies, Jr., American politician (d. 1972)
- 1900 - Natalie Schafer, American actress (d. 1991)
- 1905 - Joel McCrea, American actor (d. 1990)
- 1906 - Fred Lawrence Whipple, American astronomer (d. 2004)
- 1911 - Roy Rogers, American actor (d. 1998)
- 1913 - Vivien Leigh, English actress (d. 1967)
- 1920 - Douglass North, American economist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1921 - Georges Cziffra, Hungarian pianist (d. 1994)
- 1921 - Fawzia of Egypt, Queen of Iran
- 1931 - Ike Turner, American musician
- 1938 - César Luis Menotti, Argentine footballer
- 1941 - Art Garfunkel, American musician
- 1941 - Elke Sommer, German actress
- 1943 - Sam Shepard, American playwright and actor
- 1946 - Herman Brood, Dutch musician and artist
- 1946 - Gram Parsons, American musician (d. 1973)
- 1947 - Peter Noone, English musician and actor
- 1948 - William Daniel Phillips, American physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
- 1949 - Armin Shimerman, American actor
- 1952 - Bill Walton, American basketball player and commentator
- 1955 - Bernard Chazelle, French-born computer scientist
- 1958 - Robert Patrick, American actor
- 1959 - Bryan Adams, Canadian musician
- 1963 - Andrea McArdle, American actress
- 1963 - Tatum O'Neal, American actress
- 1965 - Famke Janssen, Danish model and actress
- 1971 - Corin Nemec, American actor
- 1971 - Jonathan Richard Guy Greenwood, Guitarist (Radiohead)
- 1973 - Johnny Damon, baseball player
- 1974 - Ryan Adams, American musician
- 1974 - Jerry Stackhouse, American basketball player
- 1975 - Angela Gossow, German singer (Arch Enemy)
- 1977 - Richard Wright, English footballer
- 1986 - BoA, Korean singer
- 1986 - Kasper Schmeichel, Danish footballer

Deaths

- 1515 - Mariotto Albertinelli, Italian painter (b. 1474)
- 1559 - Kano Motonobu, Japanese painter (b. 1476)
- 1660 - Lucy Hay, Countess of Carlisle, English socialite (b. 1599)
- 1660 - Alexandre de Rhodes, French Jesuit missionary (b. 1591)
- 1701 - Charles Gerard, 2nd Earl of Macclesfield, French-born English politician
- 1714 - Bernardino Ramazzini, Italian physician (b. 1633)
- 1752 - Carl Andreas Duker, German classical scholar (b. 1670)
- 1758 - Hans Egede, Norwegian Lutheran missionary (b. 1686)
- 1836 - Karel Hynek Mácha, Czech poet (b. 1810)
- 1879 - James Clerk Maxwell, Scottish physicist (b. 1831)
- 1930 - Christiaan Eijkman, Dutch physician and pathologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1858)
- 1933 - Texas Guinan, American saloon keeper, actress, and musician (b. 1884)
- 1941 - Arndt Pekurinen, Finnish pacifist (b. 1905)
- 1942 - George M. Cohan, American musician, actor, writer, and composer (b. 1878)
- 1944 - Alexis Carrel, French surgeon and biologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1873)
- 1951 - Reggie Walker, South African athlete (b. 1889)
- 1955 - Maurice Utrillo, French artist (b. 1883)
- 1956 - Art Tatum, American musician (b. 1909)
- 1960 - Ward Bond, American actor (b. 1903)
- 1960 - Mack Sennett, Canadian producer and director (b. 1880)
- 1974 - Stafford Repp, American actor (b. 1918)
- 1975 - Edward Lawrie Tatum, American geneticist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (b. 1909)
- 1975 - Lionel Trilling, American critic and writer (b. 1905)
- 1977 - René Goscinny, French comic book writer (b. 1926)
- 1977 - Guy Lombardo, Canadian conductor (b. 1902)
- 1979 - Al Capp, American cartoonist (b. 1909)
- 1982 - Jacques Tati, French actor and director (b. 1908)
- 1985 - Spencer W. Kimball, president of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (b. 1895)
- 1989 - Vladimir Horowitz, Russian pianist (b. 1903)
- 1990 - Meir Kahane, American rabbi and activist (b. 1932)
- 1991 - Fred MacMurray, American actor (b. 1908)
- 1997 - Isaiah Berlin, Latvian-born historian of ideas (b. 1909)
- 2000 - Victor Grinich, American businessman (b. 1924)
- 2001 - Roy Boulting, English film director and producer (b. 1913)
- 2003 - Bobby Hatfield, American singer (Righteous Brothers) (b. 1940)
- 2005 - Rod Donald, New Zealand environmentalist (b. 1957)
- 2005 - John Fowles, English writer (b. 1926)
- 2005 - Link Wray, American musician (b. 1929)

Holidays and observances

- United Kingdom and New Zealand - Guy Fawkes night (also called Bonfire night; or Fireworks night): Failure of the Gunpowder Plot to blow up Parliament in 1605 is celebrated with bonfires and fireworks.
- R.C. Saints - November 5th is the feast day of the following Roman Catholic Saints:
- St. Bertilia
- St. Dominator
- St. Domninus
- St. Elizabeth
- St. Felix and Eusebius
- St. Fibitius
- St. Galation
- St. Laetus
- St. Magnus
- St. Sylvia
- Pope Zacharias
- Ancient Latvia - the festival Katrina

External links

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/november/5 BBC: On This Day] ---- November 4 - November 6 - October 5 - December 5 - more historical anniversaries ko:11월 5일 ms:5 November ja:11月5日 simple:November 5 th:5 พฤศจิกายน

Hasbro

to indicate the carefree nature of its products.]] Hasbro is an American toy and game company. It is the second largest toy maker in the world, second only to the toy giant Mattel. Hasbro is also the publisher of the world's most popular board game, Monopoly. The corporate headquarters is located in Pawtucket, Rhode Island.

History

Hasbro originated with the Mr. Potato Head toy. Mr. Potato Head was the invention of George Lerner in the late 1940s. The idea was originally sold to a breakfast cereal manufacturer so that the separate parts could be distributed as cereal package premiums. This was not successful and Lerner bought back the rights to textile manufacturers Henry and Merrill Hassenfeld, who did business as the Hassenfeld Brothers, later to be shortened to Hasbro. The toy was a smash success, which led to their development of other toys and games. Hasbro, Inc. is now the parent company of several subsidiaries. The toys and games produced by these companies retain their brand identity, which is an important advertising consideration. Many of Hasbro's games have been around so long that they have entered into the popular culture. popular culture in history. It is available in numerous languages, such as this one in German.]] Some of the Hasbro-owned subsidiaries are:
- Avalon Hill
- Galoob
- Milton Bradley
- Parker Brothers
- Playskool
- Tiger Electronics
- Tonka
- Wizards of the Coast The largest subsidiary of Hasbro was probably Kenner (in Cincinnati, Ohio). Kenner was the toy company that was behind the success of the Star Wars, Play-Doh, Super Powers, M.A.S.K., Strawberry Shortcake and Care Bears toy lines. When Tonka and then later Hasbro acquired Kenner, the Kenner location became the foremost producer for Hasbro "boys toys", leading production on the high-profile lines of G.I. Joe, Transformers, Batman and Star Wars toys. However, after sales declined in 2000 after the Star Wars toy market saturation implosion, Hasbro faced a difficult decision in cutting back its spending in order to continue to cater to their primary buyers. They decided to close the entire Cincinnati plant, relocating about 100 employees and laying off over 400. This decision, while good for Hasbro, created a ripple effect on the Cincinnati job market which continued to push businesses out of Cincinnati, which, with Procter & Gamble and Hasbro, had managed to be the midwest city for corporate advertising and graphic design. In the early 21st century, Hasbro allowed for the use of Mr. Potato Head in a community art project similar to those with cows in Chicago and pigs in Cincinnati. Painted and reoutfitted versions of Mr. Potato Head by various artists sprouted up all over Rhode Island and were welcome additions in front of businesses and buildings (including a New England staple, Dunkin Donuts) for the duration of the project. Hasbro would be the largest toy and game publisher in the world if it were not for Mattel's Barbie franchise.

Toys & games

Barbie, Lincoln Logs have been sold since about 1916.]] Hasbro has several brands of toys aimed at different demographics. Some of its more well known brands are:
- Cabbage Patch Kids (1989-1994)
- C.O.P.S. 'n Crooks
- Easy-Bake Oven
- G.I. Joe
- Lincoln Logs
- Lite-Brite
- Mr. Potato Head
- Play-Doh
- Pokémon
- Spirograph
- Star Wars
- Tinkertoys
- Transformers Hasbro is the largest producer of board games in the world as a result of its component brands, such as Parker Brothers, Milton Bradley, Wizards of the Coast, and Avalon Hill (all acquisitions since the 1980s). As a result it it has well known and top selling games such as:
- Axis and Allies
- Battleship
- Candy Land
- Clue (Cluedo)
- Dungeons and Dragons
- Life
- Magic: The Gathering
- Monopoly (best selling board game ever according to the Guinness Book of World Records)
- Pictionary
- Risk
- Scrabble
- Trivial Pursuit Hasbro also produces many variations of most of their games. For example, in addition to original Scrabble, the game is also available as "Scrabble Deluxe Edition", "Scrabble Deluxe Travel Edition", and "Scrabble Junior". Hasbro also offers games of physical skill such as:
- Bop It
- Jenga Hasbro began a short-lived computer and video game development and publishing venture called Hasbro Interactive in the 1990s, but disbanded it in late 1999. Now Hasbro develops video games based on its brands through third-party developers and licensing strategies. On February 25 2005, Hasbro announced that it would be introducing a musical toothbrush to the market. The Tooth Tunes would transmit music from the jawbone to the ear when the bristles touch the teeth.

External links

- [http://www.hasbro.com Hasbro's official website]
- [http://www.hasbro.com/default.cfm?page=ci_history History of Hasbro]
- [http://www.ashotoforangejuice.com/gmrisk.html Hasbro flexing muscles] Category:Game manufacturers Category:Hasbro Category:Toy companies Category:Companies based in Rhode Island Category:Companies traded on the New York Stock Exchange

Anti-Monopoly

Anti-Monopoly is a board game made by San Francisco State University Professor Ralph Anspach, in response to Monopoly. In the original 1974 version the board is "monopolized" at the beginning of the game, and players compete to return the state of the board to a free market system. In a more recent version individual players choose at the beginning of the game to play either by monopolistic or competitive rules. Anspach's game was subject to challenges in the courts. In 1983, after ten years of legal battles, Anspach won a trademark lawsuit in the U.S. Supreme Court. The lawsuit had been brought over the use of the word "Monopoly". A similar game (in that it inverts the objective of Monopoly, but with the aim of giving away money and property) was described/invented by science fiction author, Philip K. Dick. ( [Manuscript "Diversion" 10-30-1958] "War Game" published in Galaxy, dec 1959 ) In Germany, where the original game was and is very popular, two more liberal versions of Anti-Monopoly were created and popular in the late 1970s and 1980s: 'Provopuli - Wem gehört die Stadt', where squatters take over parts of the town, and 'Ökopoli' where the objective is to take over the town from polluters.

External links

- [http://www.antimonopoly.com Anti-Monopoly Home Page]
- [http://www.washingtonfreepress.org/36/court.html Go to Court, Go Directly to Court - article from the Washington Free Press] Category:Board games Category:Monopoly

Supreme Court of the United States

:"Scotus" redirects here. For the medieval theologian, see Duns Scotus ---- The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest court in the United States of America. As such, the Court provides the leadership of the Judicial Branch of the Federal Government. The Court consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight Associate Justices, who are nominated by the President and confirmed with the "advice and consent" of the Senate. Appointed to serve for life, they can only be removed by Congress through the impeachment process, although they may resign. No justice has ever been removed from office, though many have retired or resigned. The Supreme Court is the only court established by the United States Constitution; all other federal courts are created by Congress. The Court holds both original and appellate jurisdiction, but the latter is used quite a bit more often. Like other federal courts, the Supreme Court may exercise the power of judicial review, or the power to declare federal or state laws, as well as the actions of federal and state executives, unconstitutional. The decisions of the Supreme Court may not be appealed to any other body; as Justice Robert H. Jackson once famously remarked, "We are not final because we are infallible, but we are infallible only because we are final." The Supreme Court meets in Washington, D.C., in the United States Supreme Court building. The court is sometimes referred to by the acronyms SCOTUS (Supreme Court of the United States) and USSC (United States Supreme Court).

History

The History of the Supreme Court is generally told in terms of the Chief Justices who have presided over it.
- Initially, during the tenures of Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth (1789–1801), the Court lacked a home of its own and any real prestige.
- That changed forever during the Marshall Court (1801–1835), which declared the Court to be the supreme arbiter of the Constitution (see Marbury v. Madison), and made a number of important rulings which gave shape and substance to the Constitutional balance of power between the Federal government (referred to at the time as the "general" government) and the states.
- The Taney Court (1836–1864) made a number of important rulings (for example, Sheldon v. Sill, holding that, while Congress may not limit the subjects the Supreme Court may hear, the Constitution does not so restrain it where lower courts are concerned) but is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, the case which may have helped precipitate the Civil War. In the years following the Civil War, the The Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts (1864–1910) began to interpret the new civil war amendments to the Constitution, and developed the doctrine of substantive due process (Lochner v. New York; Adair v. United States); under the White and Taft courts (1910–1930), the substantive due process doctrine reached its first apogee (Adkins v. Children's Hospital; ), and the Court held that the 14th Amendment applied the Bill of Rights to the states (Gitlow v. New York).
- During the Hughes, Stone, and Vinson courts (1930–1953), the court gained its own accommodation (see United States Supreme Court building, and radically changed its interpretation of the Constitution, in order to facilitate the New Deal (West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish).
- The Warren Court (1953–1969) made a number of alternately celebrated and controversial rulings expanding the application of the Constitution to civil liberties, leading a rennaisance in substantive due process. It held that segregation was unconstitutional (Brown v. Board of Education), that the Constitution protects a general right to privacy (Griswold v. Connecticut), that schools cannot have voluntary prayer (Engel v. Vitale) (or, a fortiori, mandatory bible readings, Abington School District v. Schempp), dramatically increased the scope of the doctrine of incorporation (Mapp v. Ohio; Miranda v. Arizona), wrote an equal protection clause into the Fifth Amendment, held that the states may not apportion a chamber of their legislatures in the manner in which the United States Senate is apportioned (Baker v. Carr; Reynolds v. Sims), and that the Constitution requires active compliance (Gideon v. Wainwright).
- The Burger Court (1969–1986) ruled that abortion was a constitutional right (Roe v. Wade), reached muddled and controversial rulings on affirmative action (Regents of the University of California v. Bakke) and campaign finance regulation (Buckley v. Valeo), that death penalty was unconstitutional (Furman v. Georgia) and then that the death penalty was not unconstitutional (Gregg v. Georgia).
- The Rehnquist Court (1986–2005) narrowed the focus of Roe v. Wade (Planned Parenthood v. Casey) but dramatically circumscribed the ability of states to regulate abortion (Stenberg v. Carhart), and began to limit the power of Congress under the Commerce Clause (United States v. Lopez; United States v. Morrison).

Composition

Size of the court

United States v. Morrison The Constitution does not specify the size of the Supreme Court; instead, Congress has the power to fix the number of Justices. Originally, the total number of Justices was set at six by the Judiciary Act of 1789. As the country grew geographically, the number of Justices steadily increased. The court was expanded to seven members in 1807, nine in 1837 and ten in 1863. In 1866, however, Congress wished to deny President Andrew Johnson any Supreme Court appointments, and therefore passed the Judicial Circuits Act, which provided that the next three Justices to retire would not be replaced; thus, the size of the Court would eventually reach seven by attrition. Consequently, one seat was removed in 1866 and a second in 1867. By the Circuit Judges Act of 1869, the number of Justices was again set at nine (the Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices), where it has remained ever since. President Franklin D. Roosevelt attempted to expand the Court (see Court-packing Bill); his plan would have allowed the President to appoint one new, additonal, justice, for every justice who reached a pre-set age but did not retire from the bench, until the Court reached a maximum size of fifteen justices. Ostensibly, this was to ease the burdens of the docket on the elderly judges, but it was widely recognized that the President's actual purpose was to add Justices who would favor his New Deal policies, which had been regularly ruled unconstitutional by the Court. The plan failed in Congress and the court changed course to accommodate the President's desires (see The switch in time that saved nine). In any case, Roosevelt's long tenure in the White House allowed him to appoint a large number of Justices.

Nomination, confirmation and tenure of Justices

Per Article II §2 of the United States Constitution, the power to appoint Justices belongs to the President of the United States, acting with the advice and consent of the Senate. As a general rule, Presidents nominate individuals that broadly share their ideological views. However, Presidents tend to exercise restraint, as nominees with views perceived as extreme may be blocked by the Senate (see List of Failed Nominations to the Supreme Court of the United States). In many cases, a Justice's decisions may be contrary to what the nominating President anticipated. A famous instance was Chief Justice Earl Warren; President Dwight D. Eisenhower expected him to be a conservative judge, but his decisions are arguably among the most liberal in the Court's history. While the President may nominate anyone s/he chooses, the "advice and consent" of the Senate is required for appointment. The confirmation process often attracts considerable attention from special interest groups, many of whom lobby senators to confirm or to reject. The Senate Judiciary Committee conducts hearings, questioning nominees to determine their suitability. Thereafter, the whole Senate considers the nomination; a simple majority vote is required to confirm or to reject a nominee. Rejections are relatively uncommon; the Senate has explicitly rejected only twelve Supreme Court nominees in its history. The most recent rejection of a nominee came in 1987, when the Senate refused to confirm Robert Bork. In 1991, Clarence Thomas' nomination was almost derailed by allegations of sexual harassment; Thomas was eventually confirmed by a vote of 52–48. In some cases, the Senate has defeated a nominee by failing to take a final vote on them, rather than by explicit rejection. For example, the minority may filibuster a nominee, indefinitely prolonging debate and refusing to permit a vote, or the nominee may simply not be reported out of the Judiciary Committee. Furthermore, the President may withdraw a nomination, for instance if he or she feels that the nominee has little chance of being confirmed. Most recently, President George W. Bush granted a request by Harriet Miers to withdraw her 2005 nomination, citing her concerns about Senate requests for access to internal White House documents during the confirmation process. While filibuster of a Supreme Court Justice may be an option to bar their nomination, no Supreme Court nominee has ever been filibustered when their nomination would seat them on the Court. As a sitting Associate Justice of the Court, Abe Fortas's nomination to become Chief Justice was successfully filibustered in 1968. President Johnson had nominated him to be Chief Justice of the Supreme Court after Earl Warren retired from the Court. Until the 1980s, the approval process of Justices was frequently rather quick. From Truman through Nixon, Justices were typically approved in a month. From Reagan through Clinton, the duration of the approval process extended to much longer. Some speculate this is because of the increasing political role Justices play. When the Senate is in recess, the President is constitutionally authorized to make a temporary appointment without the Senate's advice and consent. A recess appointee to the Supreme Court holds office not for life, but only until the end of the next Senate session (at most, approximately two years). In order to continue to serve thereafter, the nominee must be confirmed by the Senate. In the history of the Supreme Court, two Chief Justices and six Associate Justices have received recess appointments. They were all subsequently confirmed for full terms with the exception of Chief Justice John Rutledge. The Constitution provides that Justices "shall hold their Offices during good Behavior" (again, of course, unless appointed during a Senate recess). The term "good behavior" is interpreted to mean life. However, Justices may resign, retire into senior status, or be removed by impeachment and conviction (the last has never occurred). On average, a vacancy arises every two years; however, long stretches without any vacancies occur from time to time. For instance, no vacancy arose after Stephen Breyer's appointment in 1994 until Sandra Day O'Connor's announcement of her retirement from the Court in 2005—a period of eleven years. The Supreme Court's jurisprudence is often evaluated with respect to the service of a particular Chief Justice. Thus, for example, the Court between 1969 and 1986 is referred to as the "Burger Court" (after former Chief Justice Warren E. Burger) and the Court between 1986 and 2005 is referred to as the "Rehnquist Court" (after the late Chief Justice William Rehnquist).

Qualifications for membership

The Constitution does not explicitly establish any qualifications for Justices of the Supreme Court. In fact it does not even specify citizenship or age as it does for the executive and legislative branches. However, Presidents normally nominate individuals who have prior legal experience. Typically, most nominees have judicial experience, either at the federal or state level. Several nominees have formerly served on federal Courts of Appeals, especially the Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, which is often considered a stepping stone to the Supreme Court. Another source of Supreme Court nominees is the federal executive branch—in particular, the Department of Justice. Other potential nominees include members of Congress and academics. On the current Supreme Court, seven Justices previously served on federal courts (including three on the D.C. Circuit); two served on state courts; three were former law school professors; and three held full time positions in the federal executive branch. Nominees to the Supreme Court, as well as to lower federal courts, are evaluated by the American Bar Association's Standing Committee on Federal Judiciary. The panel is composed of fifteen federal judges (but not Supreme Court Justices), including at least one from each federal judicial circuit. The body assesses the nominee "solely to professional qualifications: integrity, professional competence and judicial temperament," and offers a rating of "well qualified," "qualified," or "not qualified." The opinions of the committee bind neither the President nor the Senate; however, they are generally taken into account.

Other functions

Each Justice on the Supreme Court is assigned to at least one of the United States' thirteen judicial circuits. The Chief Justice is usually allotted to the District of Columbia Circuit, the Federal Circuit and the Fourth Circuit; each Associate Justice is allotted to one or two judicial circuits. Under the Judiciary Act of 1789, each Justice was required to "ride circuit," or to travel within the assigned circuit and consider cases alongside local judges. This practice, however, encountered opposition from many Justices, who complained about the difficulty of travel. Moreover, several individuals opposed it on the grounds that a Justice could not be expected to be impartial in an appeal if he had previously decided the same case while riding circuit. Circuit riding was abolished in 1891. Now, the duty of a Supreme Court Justice in this regard is limited to hearing emergency petitions in the relevant circuit and some other routine tasks like addressing certain requests for extensions of time.

Current membership

The current Justices of the United States Supreme Court, in order of seniority, are: During Court sessions, the Justices sit according to seniority, with the Chief Justice in the center, and the Associate Justices on alternating sides. Therefore, the current court sits as follows from left to right: Ginsburg, Souter, Scalia, Stevens, Roberts, O'Connor, Kennedy, Thomas and Breyer (who has been the junior justice for 11 years, the third longest period in history between appointments of an Associate Justice). Justices Scalia and Thomas, the court's two Originalists are generally perceived as the Court's conservative wing. Justices Stevens, Souter, Ginsburg and Breyer are generally perceived as its liberal wing. Justices O'Connor and Kennedy are considered moderates and are hence the swing votes who often determine the outcomes of close cases. Chief Justice Roberts is generally thought to be in between Scalia and Thomas and the moderates, but has not been on the bench long enough for this to be ascertained. On July 1, 2005, Justice O'Connor announced that she would retire from the Supreme Court when her successor is nominated and confirmed. President Bush nominated Judge John Roberts to replace O'Connor on July 19, 2005; however, following the death of Chief Justice Rehnquist on September 3, he re-nominated Roberts as the new Chief Justice. The President subsequently nominated White House Counsel Harriet Miers to replace Justice O'Connor on October 3, 2005. Due to controversy, Miers withdrew her nomination on October 27, 2005. On October 31, 2005, President Bush nominated United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit Judge Samuel Alito to replace Justice O'Connor.

Ages of current justices

At the start of the 2005–2006 term, the ages of the justices were:

- Samuel A. Alito, Jr., nominated to replace Justice O'Connor, is 55 years old.

Quarters

Samuel A. Alito, Jr.] The Supreme Court occupied various spaces in the United States Capitol until 1935, when it moved into its own purpose-built home at One First Street Northeast, Washington, DC. The four-story building was designed in a classical style sympathetic to the surrounding buildings of the Capitol complex and Library of Congress by architect Cass Gilbert, and is clad in marble quarried chiefly in Vermont. The building includes space for the Courtroom, Justices' chambers, an extensive law library, various meeting spaces, and auxilliary services such as workshop, stores, cafeteria and a gymnasium. The Supreme Court building is within the ambit of the Architect of the Capitol, but maintains its own police force, separate from the Capitol Police

Jurisdiction

Article Three of the United States Constitution outlines the jurisdiction of the federal courts of the United States. It provides: :The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority; to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls; to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction; to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party; to Controversies between two or more States; between a State and Citizens of another State; between Citizens of different States; between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects. The jurisdiction of the federal courts was further limited by the Eleventh Amendment, which forbade the federal courts from hearing cases "commenced or prosecuted against [a State] by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State." However, the Eleventh Amendment is not deemed to apply if a state consents to be sued (see Sovereign immunity. Moreover, the Supreme Court has ruled that Congress may abrogate the states' immunity from lawsuits in certain circumstances. In addition to constitutional constraints, the jurisdiction of the federal courts is also limited by various federal laws. For example, the federal courts may consider "Controversies ... between Citizens of different States" only if the amount in controversy exceeds $75,000; otherwise, the case may only be brought in state courts (see diversity jurisdiction). The Constitution specifies that the Supreme Court may exercise original jurisdiction in cases affecting ambassadors and other diplomats, and in cases in which a state is a party. In all other cases, however, the Supreme Court has only appellate jurisdiction. The Supreme Court considers cases based on its original jurisdiction very rarely; almost all cases are brought to the Supreme Court on appeal. In practice, the only original jurisdiction cases heard by the Court are disputes between two or more states. The power of the Supreme Court to consider appeals from state courts, rather than just federal courts, was created by the Judiciary Act of 1789 and upheld early in the Court's history, by its rulings in Martin v. Hunter's Lessee (1816) and Cohens v. Virginia (1821). The Supreme Court is the only federal court that has jurisdiction over direct appeals from state court decisions, although there are a variety of devices that permit so-called "collateral review" of state cases. The Supreme Court may only hear actual cases and controversies. It does not hear moot cases or issue advisory opinions. However, the Supreme Court does often hear test cases, or cases specifically designed to test the constitutionality of a statute (rather than to merely redress a particular wrong). Many significant Supreme Court cases were test cases; examples include Plessy v. Ferguson and Brown v. Board of Education. Furthermore, the Court may consider some cases, such as Roe v. Wade, that become moot during the judicial process, if it appears that the legal issue involved is likely to arise again but would not be reviewable by the Court under a strict mootness analysis. "Roe" had already had her baby when the case came to the Supreme Court, because judicial activity (trials, appeals and so on) takes much longer than human gestation. Because future abortion cases would face the same time constraints, the Court decided the case in spite of its mootness. The Supreme Court is not required to hear every case presented to it. In cases that are heard by a three-judge United States district court (a practice that formerly was somewhat common but has been limited to very few cases by legislation in recent years), there is a right of appeal directly to the Supreme Court, although the Court may dispose of these appeals by summary order if it does not believe they are important enough for full briefing and argument. In most instances, however, the party must petition the Supreme Court for a writ of certiorari. By custom, certiorari is granted on the vote of four of the nine Justices. In most cases, the writ is denied; the Supreme Court normally only considers matters of national or constitutional importance. If the Court refuses to grant certiorari, it does not comment on the merits of the case; the decision of the lower court stands unchanged as if Supreme Court review had not been requested.

Procedure

Court reports and citation style

Supreme Court decisions are typically cited as in the following example: "Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973)." The citation consists of the names of the opposing parties; the volume number; "U.S." (signifying United States Reports, the official reporter of Supreme Court decisions); the page number on which the decision begins; and the year in which the case was decided. The names of the opposing parties are listed in the format "Petitioner v. Respondent" or "Appellant v. Appellee." The Reporter of Decisions is responsible for publication of the Court's rulings. Two other widely used citation formats exist: the Supreme Court Reporter and the Lawyer's Edition, corresponding to two privately-published collections of decisions. Citations to cases in the Supreme Court Reporter would be structured as follows: Snowden v. Hughes, 64 S.Ct. 397 (1944). Citations to cases in the Lawyer's Edition would be as follows: Snowden v. Hughes, 88 L.Ed. 497 (1944). Judicial opinions often use the citation from all three sources (the United States Reports, Supreme Court Reporter, and Lawyer's Edition), as seen here: Martin v. Texas, 200 U.S. 316, 26 S.Ct. 338, 50 L.Ed. 497 (1906). Decisions of the Supreme Court are precedents that bind all lower courts, both federal and state. The Supreme Court generally respects its own precedents, but has in some cases overturned them.

Checks and balances

The Constitution does not explicitly grant the Supreme Court the power of judicial review; nevertheless, the power of the Supreme Court to overturn laws and executive actions it deems unlawful or unconstitutional is a well-established precedent. Many of the Founding Fathers accepted the notion of judicial review; in Federalist No. 78, Alexander Hamilton writes: "A constitution is, in fact, and must be regarded by the judges, as a fundamental law. It therefore belongs to them to ascertain its meaning, as well as the meaning of any particular act proceeding from the legislative body. If there should happen to be an irreconcilable variance between the two, that which has the superior obligation and validity ought, of course, to be preferred; or, in other words, the Constitution ought to be preferred to the statute." The Supreme Court first established its power to declare laws unconstitutional in Marbury v. Madison (1803), consummating the system of checks and balances. The Supreme Court cannot directly enforce its rulings; instead, it relies on respect for the Constitution and for the law for adherence to its judgments. One notable instance of nonacquiescence came in 1832, when the state of Georgia ignored the Supreme Court's decision in Worcester v. Georgia. President Andrew Jackson, who sided with the Georgia courts, is supposed to have remarked, "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it!"; however, this quotation is likely apocryphal. State militia in the South also resisted to desegregate schools after the judgment Brown v. Board of Education in the 1950s. More recently, many feared that President Richard Nixon would refuse to surrender the Watergate tapes, as he had been ordered to do by the Court in United States v. Nixon (1974). Nixon, however, ultimately complied with the Supreme Court's ruling. The Constitution provides that the salary of a Justice may not be diminished during his or her continuance in office. This clause was intended to prevent Congress from punishing Justices for their decisions by reducing their emoluments. Together with the provision that Justices hold office for life, this clause helps guarantee judicial independence. However, as seen above, the President's practice of appointing justices with similar real, perceived or expected ideology can be seen to compromise judicial independence.

References

- American Bar Association. (2002). [http://www.abanet.org/scfedjud/backgrounder.html "The ABA Standing Committee on Federal Judiciary: What It Is and How it Works."]
- Joan Biskupic and Elder Witt. (1997). Congressional Quarterly’s Guide to the U.S. Supreme Court. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press.
- [http://sources.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America The Constitution of the United States.]
- Kermit Hall, et al. (1992). The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Harvard Law Review Assn., The Bluebook: A Uniform System of Citation (17th Ed. 2000).
- Peter Irons. (2000). A People's History of the Supreme Court. New York: Penguin.
- Martin v. Texas, 200 U.S. 316, 26 S.Ct. 338, 50 L.Ed. 497 (1906).
- William Rehnquist (1987). The Supreme Court. New York: Knopf.
- [http://www.supremecourtus.gov/ctrules/rulesofthecourt.pdf The Rules of the Supreme Court of the United States] (2005 ed.) (pdf).
- Catherine Hetos Skifos. [http://www.supremecourthistory.org/04_library/subs_volumes/04_c01_e.html The Supreme Court Gets a Home]
- Snowden v. Hughes, 321 U.S. 1, 64 S.Ct. 397, 88 L.Ed. 497 (1944).
- Charles Warren. (1924). The Supreme Court in United States History. (3 volumes). Boston: Little, Brown and Co.
- Bob Woodward, and Scot Armstrong. (1979). The Brethren: Inside the Supreme Court. New York: Simon & Schuster.
- [http://www.supremecourtus.gov/ The Supreme Court of the United States]
- [http://www.supremecourtus.gov/about/courtbuilding.pdf The Court Building]

External links

- [http://www.supremecourtus.gov/index.html Supreme Court of the United States. Official Homepage.]
- [http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/index.html Legal Information Institute Supreme Court Collection.]
- [http://www.oyez.org Oyez Project Supreme Court Multimedia.]
- [http://www.justia.us US Supreme Court Decisions (v. 1+) Justia, Oyez and US Court Forms.]
- [http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0101289.html Milestone Cases in Supreme Court History.]
- [http://www.findlaw.com/casecode/supreme.html FindLaw Supreme Court Opinions.]
- [http://www.michaelariens.com/ConLaw/justices/list.htm Supreme Court Justices.]
- [http://www.ericdigests.org/2002-2/court.htm Teaching about the United States Supreme Court. ERIC Digest.]
- [http://www.ericdigests.org/1995-2/court.htm Teaching about Landmark Dissents in United States Supreme Court Cases. ERIC Digest.]
- [http://www.ericdigests.org/1992-5/law.htm Teaching the Law Using United States Supreme Court Cases. ERIC Digest.]
- [http://www.supremecourthistory.org The Supreme Court Historical Society. Official Homepage.]
- [http://voteview.com/the_unidimensional_supreme_court.htm The Unidimensional Supreme Court.]
- [http://judgejohnroberts.com/ Supreme Court Zeitgeist.] Category:Judicial Branch of the United States Government Category:Article III tribunals United States, Supreme Court of the Category:Constitutional law ja:アメリカ連邦最高裁判所

George H. W. Bush

] George Herbert Walker Bush, noto anche come George Bush senior, per distinguerlo dal figlio George W. Bush, attuale presidente degli Stati Uniti, è stato il 41esimo presidente degli USA. Nato il 12 giugno 1924 da una delle più influenti famiglie dell'artistocrazia finanziaria dell'Est, studiò alla Philips Academy di Andover, nel Massachusetts, e partecipò alla seconda guerra mondiale come ufficiale di marina, ottenendo una decorazione. Nel 1945 sposò Barbara Pierce, e si laureò in economia all'università di Yale. In seguito si trasferì a Houston, nel Texas, dove fondò una società petrolifera, la Bush-Overby Development Co. che lo rese milionario. Cominciò in seguito la carriera politica e fu eletto alla Camera dei Rappresentanti nel 1966. Fu direttore della C.I.A. dal 30 gennaio 1976 al 20 gennaio 1977. Dopo essere stato vicepresidente di Ronald Reagan, fu eletto presidente nel 1988. L'evento più importante del suo mandato e stato indubbiamente la Guerra del Golfo, che, fortemente voluta dall'amministrazione Bush, iniziò il 27 febbraio 1991. George Bush si ripresentò alle elezioni del 1992 ma fu nettamente sconfitto dal Bill Clinton. Attualmente l'anziano ex-presidente ha fatto numerose apparizioni pubbliche, anche in Italia. Nonostante l'età, gode di ottima salute, tanto da praticare il paracadutismo. Bush, George Herbert Walker Bush, George Herbert Walker Bush, George Herbert Walker Bush, George Herbert Walker ja:ジョージ・H・W・ブッシュ ko:조지 H. W. 부시 ms:George H. W. Bush simple:George H. W. Bush th:จอร์จ บุช

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